Gender

• What was Wilson's BIOLOGICAL view?


  Need to reproduce means M must be promiscuous + 'spread the seed' BUT W must nurture kids + stay faithful to father
• What was Goldberg's view on gender?


  Gender is determined biologically - men are innately dominant.
• What was Parson's FUNCTIONALIST view on gender?


  W - Expressive role, should be carers (reinforced by socialisation)

  M - Instrumental role, breadwinners & protectors (reinforced by physicality AND socialisation)
• Who proved gender is a social construct?

  Margaret Mead
• How did Mead prove gender was a social construct?

  • Studied tribes in Samoa + New Guinea
  • Found gender expectations were totally diff. from those in US + UK
  • Tchambuli tribe - M were timid + W weren't involved in childrearing
• What do Feminists say ab. gender identity?


  It's constructed by the patriarchy to reinforce gender stereotypes.
• How did Hey say gender identity was reinforced in peer groups?


  Norms in female friendship groups are rooted in patriarchy
• How did Sue Lees say gender identity was reinforced in peer groups?



  • Sexually available girls labelled 'slags'
  • S. unavailable girls labelled 'drags'
  • Their behaviour is policed either way
• How did Mac an Ghaill say male gender identity was reinforced in peer groups?



  Boys learn to be men in their p. groups by focussing on 'hyper-masculinity'
• How did Ann Oakley say gender identity was reinforced in the family?


  4 Methods of socialising children into gender roles:

  1. Verbal appellations = Gendered nicknames e.g. 'sweet girl', 'naughty boy'
  2. Canalisation = Channelling kids' interests into activities/games appropriate for their gender
  3. Manipulation = Manipulating kids into behaviour appropriate for their gender
  4. Diff. activities = Boys encouraged to do risky activities, girls encouraged to be more passive + stay home
• How do Skelton & Francis say gender identity is reinforced by education?



  Boys - dominate the playground

  Girls - do separate activities in diff. areas
• How do Miller & Church say gender identity is reinforced by education?
(HINT: Teachers)


  Teachers uphold gender stereotypes

  • e.g. boy's disruptive behaviour is accepted (reinforcing ideas ab. masculinity + dominance) WHILST girls are expected to be quiet, neat (reinforces trad. notions of femininity)
• How do Bowles & Gintis say gender identity is reinforced by education?



  Via the 'Hidden Curriculum' - Gender roles are perpetuated by the teacher's expectations of students, gender imbalance in staff + peer interactions
• How does Mulvey say gender identity is reinforced by the media?

  The way W are portrayed in film/TV is from a male perspective that focusses on their appearance - they're objectified for male gratification.
• How does Ferguson say gender identity is reinforced by the media? (HINT: mags)


  • Studied magazines for 30+ yrs
  • They implied girls should aspire to be beautiful + find a husband
• How does Tunstall say gender identity is reinforced by the media?


  Media portrayal of W focusses on 4 types of activities: domestic, marital, sexual + consumer. All others are excluded.
• How do Johnson & Young say gender identity is reinforced by the media?(HINT: ads)


  Advertising reflects cultural stereotypes ab. men + women.
• Name an advertising campaign that supports Johnson & Young's view on advertising:

  Jean Paul Gaultier perfume ads
• How do JPG perfume ads support cultural stereotypes of genders?

  • 'Le Male' & 'Classique' use stylized + exaggerated gender imagery
  • Muscly men (reinforced ideas ab. masculinity and dominance) + W wearing corsets (portrays them as objects of desire)
• How do Barron & Norris say gender identity is reinforced by the workplace? (HINT: ____ labour market)

  1st labour market = high status jobs dominated by yt men

  2nd labour market = lower status jobs w/ lower pay + poor job security dom'd by W + e. mins
• How does Billington say gender identity is reinforced by the workplace? (HINT: masculinity)


  Masculinity is HEAVILY linked to M being workers
• What is 'horizontal segregation' in the workplace?

  When genders are concentrated in diff. occupations e.g. W in teaching
• What is the 'glass ceiling' in the workplace?

  When W face invisible barriers from advancing up the career ladder.
• What is the 'concrete ceiling' in the workplace?

  Same as 'glass ceiling' but refers to ethnic W instead bc it's harder to advance than for white W.
• How do Miller & Hoffman say gender identity is reinforced by religion? (HINT: Time, church)


  W are more religious that M bc they have less paid work ➡️more time to participate in church activities
• How do PM's say gender identities are changing?

  Become more flexible bc ppl can choose identities

  • Pakulski & Waters: We are defined by what we BUY, not what we DO
• How does Wilkinson say gender identities are changing? (HINT: Gender_____)


  Fundamental shift in values of current gen. of W compared to prev. gen. ➡️ 'genderquake' ➡️ Power shift between M/W + gender roles are changing
• How does Gauntlett say female gender identities are changing?(HINT: housewives + girl pwr)


  The 'passive housewife' image depicted by the media since 20th Cen. is steadily being replaced by 'girl power' phenomenon

  • Shows W they can control their lives
  • Shows them how to be assertive, confident + feminine simultaneously
  • Endorsed by Spice Girls
• How does Jackson say female gender identities are changing?


  Identified 'ladettes' - W practicing male behaviour e.g. drinking, smoking + swearing
• How does Connell say male gender identities are changing?


  Identified 4 types of masculinity:

  1. Subordinate - Lacking traits needed for hegemonic m.
  2. Marginalised - Masculinity that doesn't conform to hegemonic m.
  3. Complicit - M who don't support male dominance over W BUT actively benefit from it
  4. Hegemonic - dom. form of masculinity upheld by society
• How does Mac an Ghaill say male gender identities are changing? (HINT: Crisis of -)

  Dec. in trad. male industries (steel, mines etc.) and subsequent unemployment = crisis

  • Being the breadwinner is central to masculinity (Links to Billington) so no job ➡️ insecurity, low self-esteem
• Why is gender socialisation critiqued? (2 reasons)

  1. For ignoring ppl's ethnicity/class/age etc.
  2. For promoting trad. gender roles