Book 1

• Aim


  Developed from theories

  General statement that describe the purpose of an investigation, what the researcher intends to investigate
• Hypotheses


  Statement made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory

  Make IV and DV clear

  Operationalise variables
• Directional hypothesis


  Makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people, they state the direction (higher or lower, faster or slower etc)

  Used when previous research suggests a particular outcome
• Non-directional hypothesis


  States there's a difference between conditions or groups of people but the nature or direction of the difference is not specified

  Used when previous research is contradictory, or no theory, or previous research
• Independent variable


  changes or manipulates
• Dependent variable


  Measured by the researcher, should be caused by any change in the IV
• Operationalisng variables


  Sometimes DV hard to measureEnsure variables are clear and measurable
• Extraneous variables


  Any other variables that might potentially intefere with the IV and affect the DV if not controlledNuisance variables - do not vary systematically with the IV, minor, make it harder to detect a result
• Confounding variables


  Type of extraneous variableChange systematically with the IVCannot tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
• Demand characteristics


  Participant reactivity is an extraneous variableDemand characters - clues are used to try work out what is going on and interpret the aimMay act as they believe they are expected to, underperform or overperform so they no longer act naturally
• Investigator Effects

  Participant reactivity

  Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome

  Hugh Coolican 2006

  Expectancy effects

  Unconscious cues

  May refer to any action of the researcher that were related to the study's design (selection of participants, materials, instructions)

  Leading questions
• Randomisation


  Minimise the effect of extraneous/confounding variable on the outcomeChance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious biases when designing, trying to control investigator effectsLists and conditions should be randomly generated
• Standardisation


  All participants should be subject to the same environment, information and experienceAll procedures standardisedStandardised instructionsNon-standardised changes in procedure do not act as an extraneous variable 
• Experimental Design


  Way in which participants are used in experiments, arranged in relation to the different experimental conditionsIndependent groupsRepeated measuresMatched pairs
• Independent Groups

  • Two seperate groups of participants experience two sets of two different conditionsIf there are two IV then all participants experience one condition onlyOne experimental condition and one control conditionMean performance of two groups comparedParticipant variables, difference may act as a confounding variable, reducing validity, use random allocation to help thisMore participants as all only experience one condition, more time and money on recruitment+ Order effects not much of a problem, less likely to guess aims
• Repeated Measures

  • All participants experience both conditionsMean scores from both conditions would be compared to see differenceOrder effects is a confounding variable, may be tackled by counterbalancing (attempt to control order effects, take part in one condition first and the other group takes part in the second first)Boredom, fatigueImprovement in tasksDemand characteristics may arise as they experience all conditions+ Participant variables controlled, higher validityFewer participants needed, less time recruiting, less cost
• Matched Pairs

  Paired together on a variable

  One from each pair allocated to a different condition

  Attempt to control the confounding variable of participant variables

  Often includes pre-test

  Then run like an independent groups experimental design

  
  

  + Single condition so less order effects and demand characteristic

  - Impossible to match exactly, even in identical twins

  + Matching may be time consuming and expensive, particularly with pre-tests, so less economical than other designs
• Types of Experiment


  Laboratory FieldNatural Quasi
• Laboratory Experiments

  • Highly controlled environments+ High control over confounding and extraneous variablesHigh internal validityEasier to replicateLack generalisabilityLow external validity - ArtificialDemand characteristics - Know they are being studiedLow mundane realism - May not represent everyday experience
• Field Experiments

  IV manipulated in a natural usual setting

  + Higher Mundane Realism - Environment natural

  + High external validity - Unaware they are being studied

  -Replication harder and unsure of cause and effect - Loss of control over confounding and extraneous variables

  -Ethical issues - Cannot consent if unaware they are being observed and might invade privacy
• Natural Experiments

  No control of IV and cannot change it

  IV natural not necessarily the setting

  + Provides opportunities for research that may not be done for pratical or ethical reasons

  + High external validity - real-world issues and problems as they happen

  -Natural event may happen rarely reducing opportunities 

  -May not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions

  -Unsure about cause and effect

  -May be in a lab - lack realism and demand characteristics
• Population

  Large group of individuals the researcher is interested in studying

  Researcher selects a smaller group known as the sample for practical and economic reasons

  Sample representative 

  Generalisation

  Majority of populations contain a degree of bias due to difficulty of representing whole population

  Samples selected using sampling techniques
• Quasi Experiment

  IV is based on an existing difference between people

  No manipulation of the variable and exists

  IV cannot be changed

  DV may be natural or devised by the experimenter in the field or lab

  + Controlled - replication

  -Confounding variables - cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions

  -IV not deliberately changed - Unsure about cause and effect
• Sample

  A group of people that take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
• Random Sample

  All members of the targeted population have an equal chance of being selected

  Complete list of all members of the target population

  All names assigned a number

  Selected through lottery method

  + Higher internal validity, EV and CV equally divided

  -Difficult

  -Time consuming

  -Complete list of target population hard to obtain

  -Participants may refuse to take part

  -May still be unrepresentative
• Systematic Sample

  Every nth member of the target population is selected

  Sampling frame which is a list of people in the target population organised

  Sampling system such as every 3rd 

  May begin from a randomly selected start to reduce bias

  + Objective, no influence over who is selected

  -Time consuming

  -May refuse to take part
• Stratified Sample

  Composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population or the wider population

  Identifies different strata

  Proportions worked out

  Participants for each stratum selected randomly

  + Accurate representation

  + Generalisable

  -Cannot stratify to reflect all the ways people are different
• Opportunity Sample

  Select anyone willing and available

  Ask anyone who is around

  + Convenient

  + Economical

  + Less time

  -Unrepresentative, not generalisable

  -Researcher bias, complete control over the participants
• Volunteer Sample

  Participants select themselves

  Advertisement or opting in when asked

  + Less time consuming, minimal input from the researcher

  + Participants more engaged

  -Volunteer bias, certain type of people volunteer and may try to please the researcher
• Ethical Issues

  Informed consent

  Deception

  Protection from harm

  Privacy and confidentiality
• Informed Consent

  Making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for

  Participants then make an informed judgment whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged

  May make the study meaningless as the behaviour will not be natural as they know the aims of the study
• Deception

  Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation

  Participants who have not received adequate information when they agreed to take part cannot be said to have given informed consent

  Can be justified if it does not cause the participant undue distress
• Protection from Harm

  Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would in everyday life

  Should be protected from psychological and physical harm

  Participants should be reminded they have the right to withdraw at any point
• Privacy and Confidentiality

  Participants have the right to control information about themselves

  If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected

  Confidentiality refers to our right enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act to have any personal data protected

  Right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place
• Ways of Dealing with Informed Consent

  Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate

  If participant agrees this is signed

  For children under 16 a signature of parental consent is required

  Informed consent may spoil the research, participants know what is being studied and alter their behaviour accordingly

  Presumptive consent, rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, similar group asked if the study is acceptable, if the group agrees then consent is presumed

  Prior general consent, participants give their consent to take part in a range of studies including one that will involve deception, by consenting they consent to be deceived

  Retrospective consent, participants asked for their consent during debriefing after taking part in the study, may not have been aware of their participation or been subject to deception
• Ways of Dealing with Deception and Protection from Harm

  At the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief

  Participants should be made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with during the study

  Participants should be told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data

  Particularly important if there is retrospective consent

  Participants should be reassured about any worries their behaviour is wrong or unusual

  If they have been subject to stress or embarrassment they may receive counselling which the researcher should provide
• Ways of Dealing with Confidentiality

  If personal details are held they must be protected

  Usually don't record personal details, anonymity

  Researchers usually refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation

  In a case study psychologists often use initials when describing the individual(s) involved

  During briefing and debriefing participants are reminded their data will be protected throughout the process and told that the data will not be shared with other researchers
• BPS Code of Conduct

  British Psychological Society

  Includes set of ethical guidelines

  Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research, may lose their jobs

  Guidelines closely matched to the ethical issues and attempt to ensure that all participants are treated with respect and consideration during each phase of research

  Guidelines implemented by ethics committees in research institution who often use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
• Pilot Study

  A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted

  The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary

  Helpful to use pilot interviews or questionnaires to try out questions in advance and remove or reword those that are ambiguous or confusing

  In observational studies a pilot study provides a way of checking coding systems before the real investigation is undertaken, this may be an important part of training observers

  Identifying potential issues and to modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run
• Single-blind Procedure

  Participants do not know the aim, condition of the experiment or if there is another

  Any information that might create expectations is not revealed until the end of the study to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics