Gender

• The gender pay gap (2017) is 9.1% which could cause women to be more likely to take part in crime as they cannot afford basic necessities
• Anne Oakley (1974) studies the socialisation of boys and girls and could argue women are less likely than men to commit crimes because they have been socialised into being obedient, caring and nurturing
• Margaret Benston (1972) calls women unpaid domestic labourers showing them as economically deprived meaning single women may have to turn to crime to gain basic necessities and married women may not be able to commit crime as they are restricted to the domestic sphere
• Sarah Thornton (1995) claims women are unable to take part in deviant subcultures due to financial dependence and expectations of marriage
• Mcrobbie and Garner (1991) argue Bedroom culture restricts girls to the domestic sphere and means they cannot take part in youth deviance
• The Home Office (2009/10) finds young males are responsible for 20% of all crime while girls are responsible for 4%
• Carolynn Jackson (2006) says girls take part in anti-school subcultures through ladette culture
• Smart (1976) says young girls face parental restriction which prevents them from taking part in youth deviance
• Fran Ansley (1976) calls women in the proletariat the "takers of shit" as proletariat men take their frustrations out on them exposing them to domestic abuse
• Sylvia Walby (1990) says one way women face discrimination from the public patriarchy is through "violence" (EG violent crime such as domestic violence) and "the state" (as there are too few laws to protect women from crime)
• Women's Aid found that 50,000 women were raped by their partners in 2018
• Arlacki (1990) claims that globalisation is making the exploitation of women easier as criminal activities such as human trafficking are made easier
• The Ministry of Justice finds on average 80% of all crime is committed by men
• The Ministry of Justice found in 2013 females accounted for 18% of all arrests and 25% of all convictions
• The Ministry of Justice (2012) found 79,000 of the 82,000 people in prison were men
• The peak age of offending for females is 15 while for males it is 18; for females this drops to low offending numbers after the peak age while for males the peak remains for a few years
• Crime Survey for England and Wales (2010/11) found female offenders are more likely to be on benefits than male offenders however men in general are more likely to be on benefits showing that women's deprivation can be seen as worse as it is more likely to cause them to turn to crime
• Chivalry Thesis (Pollak 1950) means men are socialised to act politely towards women > women are treated more leniently by the male dominated CJS
• Men are historically more likely to fall victim to crime however the gap between male and female victimisation is decreasing
• Young (1988); the "meaning of the punch" differs depending on the offender and victim; violent crime may be taken more seriously if the victim is a woman and the offender is a man
• Hammers and Saunders (1984) conducted unstructured interviews with women on a street in Leeds and found 20% of them had been sexually assaulted and not reported it
• Stanko (2000) found over a 24 hour period in the UK there was one domestic violence incident reported every second, very few of which ended in an arrest
• Walklate (2006) finds many domestic abuse victims feel unable to leave their relationships due to children, financial dependence, or lack of places to go