Cardiovascular patho

• What is the leading cause of death worldwide?

  Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
• How many people died from CVD in 2019?

  17.9 million
• What percentage of global deaths did CVD represent in 2019?

  32%
• Where do over ¾ of CVD deaths occur?

  Low- or middle-income countries
• What is the formula for cardiac output?

  • Cardiac output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate
  • Stroke volume is from the left ventricle
• What is myocardial infarction?

  A heart attack
• What are two types of blood pressure conditions?

  Hypertension and hypotension
• What is pericarditis?

  Inflammation of the pericardium
• What is heart failure also known as?

  Congestive heart failure
• What are the causes of cardiovascular illnesses?

  Non-modifiable:

  • Age
  • Gender
  • Race
  • Congenital conditions

  
  

  Modifiable:

  • Unhealthy diet
  • Lack of exercise
  • Smoking
  • Mental stress
  • High blood pressure
  • High blood sugar
  • Abnormal cholesterol
• What are the steps in the formation of atherosclerosis?

  1. Endothelial damage in coronary arteries
  2. LDL penetrates vessel wall
  3. Monocytes attracted to damaged cells
  4. Monocytes convert to macrophages
  5. Macrophages become foam cells
  6. Plaque forms and fibrous cap develops
  7. Thrombus formation can lead to myocardial infarction
• What is angina pectoris?

  Temporary chest pain from decreased blood flow
• What causes Prinzmetal angina?

  Coronary artery vasospasm
• How does stable angina differ from unstable angina?

  Stable angina occurs with exertion; unstable does not
• What are the signs and symptoms of stable angina?

  • Chest pain or discomfort
  • Localized squeezing or tightness
  • Pain in arms, chest, or jaw
• What are the signs and symptoms of unstable angina?

  • Intense and severe chest pain
  • Occurs at any time
  • Insufficient blood flow to the heart
• What is a myocardial infarction also known as?

  A heart attack
• What is the difference between STEMI and NSTEMI?

  STEMI shows ST elevation on ECG; NSTEMI does not
• What are common symptoms of a myocardial infarction?

  Chest pain, nausea, cold sweat
• What atypical symptoms may women experience during a heart attack?

  Neck or arm pain, feeling tired
• What is the treatment for myocardial infarction?

  • M = Morphine for pain relief
  • O = Oxygen to increase blood oxygen levels
  • N = Nitrates to relax arteries
  • A = Aspirin to thin blood and prevent clots
• What is acute coronary syndrome?

  • Unstable angina: chest pain, no ECG changes
  • Non-ST-Elevated MI: chest pain, elevated blood markers
  • ST-elevated MI: chest pain, acute ECG changes
• How many people have hypertension in the UK?

  13.63 million
• What is hypertension?

  High blood pressure
• How is blood pressure recorded?

  • Systolic pressure: force when heart pumps
  • Diastolic pressure: resistance between heartbeats
  • Recorded as systolic/diastolic
• What complications can hypertension cause?

  • Heart disease
  • Heart attacks
  • Strokes
  • Heart failure
  • Aortic aneurysms
  • Kidney disease
  • Vascular dementia
• What is hypotension?

  Low blood pressure
• What are the complications of hypotension?

  • Dizziness and weakness
  • Injury from falls
  • Reduced oxygen levels leading to damage
• What are the symptoms of low blood pressure?

  • Lightheadedness or dizziness
  • General weakness
  • Confusion and fainting
• What are the symptoms of high blood pressure?

  • Blurred vision
  • Nosebleeds
  • Shortness of breath
  • Chest pain
  • Dizziness and headaches
• What is an aneurysm?

  An outward bulging of a blood vessel
• Where are the most common locations for aneurysms?

  • Abdominal aorta
  • Brain (intracranial or cerebral)
• What are the symptoms of a ruptured aortic aneurysm?

  • Sudden severe abdominal or back pain
  • Pulsing sensation in the abdomen
  • Significant blood pressure difference in arms
• What is heart failure?

  Inability to pump blood effectively
• What are the causes of heart failure?

  • Coronary heart disease
  • High blood pressure
  • Cardiomyopathy
  • Heart rhythm problems
  • Heart valve issues
  • Congenital heart defects
  • Other factors (obesity, anemia, thyroid disorders)
• What is tachycardia?

  Heart rate over 100 bpm
• What are common causes of tachycardia?

  • Heart attack
  • Damaged heart tissue
  • Structural changes in the heart
  • High blood pressure
  • Smoking and stress
• What are the symptoms of tachycardia?

  Fluttering in chest, dizziness, fainting
• What is bradycardia?

  Resting heart rate under 60 bpm
• What are the symptoms of bradycardia?

  • Dizziness and weakness
  • Shortness of breath
  • Tiredness