3.1

• Spiracles can be opened and closed to avoid excessive water loss.
• The need for specialised exchange surfaces arises as the size of the organism, and its surface area to volume ratio, decreases.
• In the case of single celled organisms, the substances can easily enter the cell as the distance that needs to be crossed over is short.
• However, in multicellular organisms, that distance is much larger due to a lower surface area to volume ratio.
• Multicellular organisms require specialised exchange surfaces for efficient gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
• Features of an efficient exchange surface include large surface area, for instance the root hair cells or folded membranes, such as those of the mitochondria.
• An efficient exchange surface should also be thin to ensure that the distance that needs to be crossed by the substance is short.
• The exchange surface also requires a good blood supply/ventilation to maintain a steep gradient, for example that of the alveoli.
• The lungs are a pair of structures with a large surface area located in the chest cavity with the ability to inflate.
• The lungs are surrounded by the rib cage which serves to protect them.
• A lubricating substance is secreted to prevent the friction between rib cage and lungs during inflation and deflation.
• External and internal intercostal muscles between the ribs which contract to raise and lower the ribcage respectively.
• A structure called the diaphragm separates the lungs from abdomen area.
• The air enters through the nose, along the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles which are structures well adapted to their role in enabling passage of air into the lungs.
• The gaseous exchange takes place in the walls of alveoli, which are tiny sacs filled with air.
• The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles enable the flow of air into and out of the lungs.
• The airways are held open with the help of rings of cartilage, incomplete in the trachea to allow passage of food down the oesophagus behind the trachea.
• Trachea and bronchi are similar in structure, with the exception of size – bronchi are narrower.
• They are composed of several layers which together make up a thick wall.
• The wall is mostly composed of cartilage, in the form of incomplete C rings.
• Inside surface of the cartilage is a layer of glandular and connective tissue, elastic fibres, smooth muscle and blood vessels, referred to as the 'loose tissue'.
• Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled or exhaled in a single breath and varies depending on gender, age, size as well as height.
• Tidal volume is the volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath at rest.
• Breathing rate is the number of breaths per minute, which can be calculated from the spirometer trace by counting the number of peaks or troughs in a minute.
• The volume of air which is always present in the lungs is known as the residual volume.
• The tidal volume can be exceeded, in cases such as during exercise where the inspiratory reserve volume is reached in an attempt to increase the amount of air breathed in.
• The expiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be exhaled on top of the tidal volume.
• Fish have a small surface area to volume ratio for gas exchange, apart from this they have an impermeable membrane so gases can’t diffuse through their skin therefore fish need a specialised exchange surface.
• Bony fish have four pairs of gills, each gill supported by an arch.
• Along each arch there are multiple projections called gill filaments, with lamellae on them which participate in gas exchange.
• Blood and water flow across the lamellae in a counter current direction, meaning they flow in opposite direction.
• The projections are held apart by water flow.
• In the absence of water, the projections stick together, thus meaning fish cannot survive very long out of water.
• Ventilation is required to maintain a continuous unidirectional flow.
• Ventilation begins with the fish opening its mouth followed by lowering the floor of buccal cavity, thus enabling water to flow into it.
• Afterwards, the fish closes its mouth, causing the buccal cavity floor to raise, thus increasing the pressure.
• The water is forced over the gill filaments by the difference in pressure between the mouth cavity and opercular cavity.
• The operculum acts as a valve and pump and lets water out and pumps it in.
• Insects do not possess a transport system therefore oxygen needs to be transported directly to tissues undergoing respiration.
• This is achieved with the help of spiracles, small openings of tubes, either bigger trachea or smaller tracheoles, which run into the body of an insect and supply it with the required gases.