10 markers

• Function of education (functionalist)-

  Socialisation(durkheim) - The education system meets a functional prerequisite of society by passing on the cultural and values of society. This is achieved through a hidden curriculum and PSHE Lessons. This helps to build social solidarity as it teaches students the core values of society.

  
  

  Role allocation (davis and moore) -The education system provides a means to selecting and sifting people into the social hierarchy. In a meritocratic society access to jobs and power, wealth and status are directly linked to educational achievement.
• Function of education (marxist)

  Reproduction of social inequality- Education creates WC failure in order to create an unqualified factory workforce. Private education prepares children of the elite four positions of power. Hidden Curriculum is shaped to assist MC achievement and deter WC achievement.

  
  

  Correspondence principle- School processes mirror the world of work in order to prepare them for manual labour. For example, a lack of control in the classroom prepares you for a lack of control in the workplace. Similarly the structure of the school day mirrors the structure of the workday.
• Why pupils join subcultures?

  One reason is schools streamed pupils on the basis of their behaviour . Those students who were labelled as deviants were put in the lower stream. The students were denied status and came together to create a sense of self-worth forming anti-school subcultures.They did this by inverting the values of the school. In an anti-school subculture where being bad became being good. Thus they didn't hand in homework, cheated and broke school rules.The more they did this the more their respect increased amongst their peers.

  
  

  One reason why pupils form subcultures is through labelling. This may be because they are labelled by teachers in the classroom. Labelling means attaching a definition such as bright or high achiever. This labelling may be due to external factors such as possessing elaborated language code. Those who are positively labelled form pro-school subcultures, they tend to mix with others who are similarly labelled. The pupils in these subcultures work hard and have good behaviour. These pupils gained more favour with the teachers and research by Ball showed how this meant the teacher spent more time with them. Linking to the first point, these pupils are also more likely to end up in higher streams, further improving their chances of educational success.
• Marketisation policies that increased educational inequality

  One reason why marketisation policies may have increased educational inequality is through the 'parentocracy'. The parentocracy refers to giving parents the power within the educational market to choose which school their child will attend. This gives middle/upper class children an advantage as their parents have both material and cultural capital, whereas working class parents' choice is restricted due to their lack of economic and cultural capital. For example, a middle class parent can afford to move into catchment areas of more desirable schools. Therefore resulting in unequal opportunities for working class children, because they are less likely to be selected for the best schools, thus resulting in lower educational achievement.

  
  

  Another reason why marketisation policies may have increased educational inequality is through the publication of league tables and the funding formula.The funding formula refers to the allocated funds schools receive based on how many pupils they attract. The publication of league tables led to unpopular schools losing income and thus finding it difficult to match the teacher skills and facilities of rival schools. Therefore unpopular schools fail to attract more pupils leading to a reduction in funding, leading to a spiral of decline until the school closes down
• Impact of globalisation on education

  One way globalisation may have changed pupils' experience of education is increased competition from abroad .This means British students today are expected to spend longer in education. So one change in the experience of education is that students stay in school for longer. Globalisation has meant that most of the unskilled factory jobs have now moved abroad, and increasingly British workers need to be better educated in order to get jobs at all, thus the expansion of higher education means that more students 'experience' higher education and are better qualified than their parents.

  
  

  Another way globalisation may have changed pupils' experience of education is increased immigration has led to more multiculturalism and British schools have long had multicultural education in response to this, which also changes pupils' experiences of education. For example, religious education has long taught about other religions, and increasingly schools and colleges have events such as 'black history month' raising awareness of diversity. Schools have also introduced compensatory education to help recent immigrants from Eastern Europe, such as extra support for pupils who don't have English as a first language.
• Gender differences in subject choice

  The first reason is gendered differences in early socialisation. Fiona Norman (1988) found that most parents socialise boys and girls in different ways - they tend to be more gentle with girls, protect them more, and encourage them in more passive activities, such as reading with them, whereas 'typical boys' are encouraged to run around. Later on in school, this might explain why more boys do active subjects such as P.E. and why more girls do reflective, academic subjects such as English and sociology.

  
  

  Another reason is peer group pressure might also encourage boys to do 'typically boys subjects' and girls to do typically girls subjects. This is linked to hegemonic masculinity - stereotypically, 'real men' are good at sport, and so boys are under pressure to play sport to fit into their male peer group, this doesn't apply to girls and could explain why more boys do PE later in their school careers. Verbal abuse is one way these peer groups reinforce dominant gender identities. Boys choosing girls' subjects can be accused of being 'gay', this may steer them away from subjects which don't fit in with their gender domains
• Differential achievement in boys

  One reason for differential achievement for boys is a lack of role models. Teaching is a feminine profession, and schools lack many 'real' men role models. This is especially critical at primary schools where women dominate. This could help explain why learning is seen as 'girlie' by many boys and not worth their time.

  
  

  Another reason for differential achievement for boys is anti-school subcultures. Boys gain symbolic capital amongst peers by joining anti-school subcultures. More disruptive - boys tend to get excluded more and seek status from exclusion. Doing well in school or asking for help leads to bullying and belief that they are weak.

  
  

  A further reason for differential achievement in boys is the feminisation of education. Schools do not nurture masculine traits, such as competitiveness and leadership and instead celebrate qualities such as attentiveness in class, methodical working. Sewell argues coursework should be replaced with exams and emphasis in outdoor education within the curriculum.
• Differential achievement in girls

  One reason is coursework. Once coursework was introduced girls began to outperform boys and the gap widened. Mitsos and Browne suggest that girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised than boys which puts them at an advantage.

  
  

  Another reason is role models. In the last 20 years there has been an increase in the number of females taking up headteacher and senior teacher roles which acts as role model for girls showing them that they can achieve positions of importance and power.By having role models to look up to in no traditional positions Girls are more likely to work harder to achieve these goals themselves which leads to them achieving more educationally.
• Differential achievement external factors

  One reason for differential achievement between social classes is material deprivation. For example, those from middle/upper class backgrounds can afford to attend a private school, with higher qualified teachers and significantly better resources, whereas working class pupils attend schools with poorly qualified teachers.

  
  

  Another reason for differential achievement between social classes and ethnicities is cultural deprivation. Bernstein identified that the working class and the middle class have different language codes, the working class use a restricted code which involves simple grammar, limited vocab and gestures. Where as the Middle class use an elaborate code which involves complex grammar, fuller sentences and

  more abstract ideas. This puts MC students at an advantage at school as teachers, textbooks and the education system tend to use the elaborate code
• Have educational policies improved educational inequality after 1988 pt 1

  P1- academies

  Introduced in 2000 by Tony Blair to reduce class inequality. Academies are when schools are under the control of the central government rather than the local authority. Previous failing schools were attended by working class pupils, and academies gave the school a chance to improve quality of education.

  
  

  EXAMPLE: Report by PWC found attainment in academies is improving at a faster rate than comparable schools.

  
  

  +Successfully drove up standards and have introduced class equality as more w/c students attend university as a result of more qualifications.
• pt 2


  P2-introduction of free schools

  Free schools are funded by the state and can be run by parents/ businesses rather than the local authority,

  Evaluation:

  +significantly improves the educational standards

  -only benefited children from highly educated families.

  -enrol fewer children from working class backgrounds
• pt 3


  P3- introduction of funding formula:

  The funding formula is when schools are allocated funds based upon how many pupils they attract.

  Evaluation:

  +afford the most qualified teachers

  +more selective and attract more ambitious pupils

  -reduction of funding- leads to these schools lacking the financial resources and facilities to compete with other schools.
• Pupil premium


  pupil premium

  Pupil premium is money allocated to schools for every disadvantaged pupil, this policy was introduced to reduce educational inequality for disadvantaged/working class pupils

  Evaluation:

  -OFSTED found that in many cases pupil premium is not spent on what it was supposed to

  -cutting Sure Start and EMA ( organisations that helped people from working class backgrounds achieve highly) has significantly reduced the opportunities for WC pupils
• Have marketisation and privatisation policies increased educational

  P1- Myth of parentocracy

  David (1993) describes marketisation as a 'parentocracy' as it is ruled by parents, in other words the power shifts from producers to consumers.

  Evaluation:

  + encourage diversity among schools

  +more choice as well as raising standards

  - parentocracy is a myth as it makes it appear that parents have the same freedom,

  -middle class parents are able to take advantage of choices available to them. Ultimately, the 'parentocracy' appears to be increasing educational inequality.
• part 2


  P2-Publication of league tables

  The funding formulae is when schools are allocated funds based on how many pupils they attract.

  Evaluation:

  +popular schools receive more funds and are able to be more selective and attract more ambitious pupils.

  -unpopular schools lose income and find it difficult to match facilities of rivals, thus they fail to attract pupils leading to a spiral of decline

  -competition-oriented education system produces more segregation in Scandinavian countries

  +'good schools' can avoid taking less able pupils and thus avoid poor results, and they can be more selective by recruiting higher achievers.
• Globalisation of educational policy

  P3- Globalisation of educational policy

  Private companies are exporting educational policy to other countries, such as OFSTED. This means that the nation state has less control over policy-making as now many private companies in the education industry of foreign owned.

  Evaluation:

  +saving money by allowing overseas countries to mark exams, thus providing schools with more funds.

  -language barriers, ethnocentric, therefore not a fair examination

  -myth used to legitimise the turning of education into a source of private profit

  - Ball argues that education is being turned into a ' legitimate object of private profit making
• Education as a commodity

  P4- Education as a commodity

  This is where the education system has turned into an object of private profit making, so pupils are viewed as economic assets, used and explored in the system to produce good results in order to make a school look better.

  Evaluation:

  + enabled organisations such as OFSTED to be introduced

  +Promoted equality as it allows students to attend better places for their education

  +Allows schools to be monitored and evaluated in order to improve quality

  -exists just to create profit for the bourgeoisie

  -results in inequality as the notion that every child matters is ignored
• selective school policies (pre 1988) increased educational inequality

  P1- 1944 Education Act- selected students for different types of schools based on ability

  Tripartite system:

  Grammar Schools- academic education, students entered into 'O' levels. 15-20% of pupils attended this.

  Technical schools- vocational education, only 5% of schools were technical

  Secondary moderns- basic education, 80% of pupils attended

  Special IQ test developed to test the intelligence of 11 year olds, those who passed went to grammar schools.

  -Pupils intelligence levels not fixed at 11, 'late developers' missed out on opportunity to sit exams

  -Reproduction and legitimisation of class inequality- middle/upper class went to grammar schools, the rest went to the others
• 1965 Education Act


  P2- 1965 Comprehensive schools - abolished grammar schools and secondary moderns

  This made education more meritocratic.

  -However left to the choice of local education authority to abolish, not all did so, therefore the grammar-secondary divide still exists.

  + Functionalists argue comprehensive schools promote social integration by bringing children of different classes together.

  -Marxists argue comprehensives are not meritocratic, they reproduce class inequality from one generation to the next through labelling by social class. The 'myth of meritocracy' legitimises inequality, making unequal achievement seem 'fair
• 1988 Education Act


  P3- 1988 Education Act- introduced open enrollment, parents allowed to apply for any school. This led to the best schools becoming over subscribed, leading to the selection of the best pupils(often middle class).

  Although the school admissions code means they cannot select by social class, they do this covertly anyways. They select students based on the following criteria:

  Selection by catchment area, sibling policies, selection by faith, selection by aptitude.

  -selection by catchment area results in selection by mortgage because the house prices near the best schools rise, therefore allowing only the wealthy to move there.

  -Tough and Brookes(2007) use the term 'covert selection' to describe the process where schools try to discourage parents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. E.g; making school literature difficult to understand, lengthy applications, expensive uniforms. Cultural and material capital.
• 2010 education act


  P4- 2010 Pupil premium- Pupil premium is money allocated to schools for every disadvantaged pupil, this policy was introduced to reduce educational inequality for disadvantaged/working class pupils

  -OFSTED found that in many cases pupil premium is not spent on what it was supposed to

  -cutting Sure Start and EMA ( organisations that helped people from working class backgrounds achieve highly) has significantly reduced the opportunities for WC pupils
• How education prepares students for work

  -Teaching specific skills for specific jobs- A complex economy requires different jobs, therefore the schools allow individuals to specialise in their own jobs.

  
  

  -Motivation by external rewards- pupils put up with boring lessons in order to reap the rewards of exam results, which prepares pupils for getting payed.
• How education performs ideological functions

  -Subservience to authority- students learn to accept the authority of teachers which prepares them for being passive and easily controllable.

  
  

  -Teachers ignoring sexual abuse of female students- radical feminists argue that this reinforces the patriarchy as girls grow up learning to say nothing about male abuse.
• Reasons why value consensus might fail.

  -Ethnocentric curriculum may alienate some - for example, christian assembles/ holidays may make non-christian's feel unwelcome.

  
  

  -Growth of homeschooling- The parents may teach children different things, therefore resulting in a differential experience of school, thus making them unlikely to have shared values.
• criticisms of Marxist view of education

  -They teach subjects which criticise elites- e.g: sociology, therefore criticises the idea education performs ideological functions.

  
  

  -Deterministic- not every child passively accepts authority (deviants)

  
  

  -Poor people 'beat the odds'- the idea of reproducing class inequality doesn't apply to all.
• Analyse reasons for differential achievement between social classes and ethnicities.

  One reason for differential achievement between social classes is material deprivation. For example, those from middle/upper class backgrounds can afford to attend a private school, with higher qualified teachers and significantly better resources, whereas working class pupils attend schools with poorly qualified teachers.

  
  

  
  

  Another reason for differential achievement between social classes and ethnicity is cultural deprivation. Bernstein identified that the working class and the middleclass have different language codes, the working class use a restricted code which involves simple grammar, limited vocab and gestures. Where as the Middle class use an elaborate code which involves complex grammar, fuller sentences and more abstract ideas. This puts MC students at an advantage at school as teachers, textbooks and the education system tend to use the elaborate code
• Globalisation of educational policy

  P1- Globalisation of educational policy

  Private companies are exporting educational policy to other countries, such as OFSTED. This means that the nation state has less control over policy-making as now many private companies in the education industry of foreign owned.

  Evaluation:

  +saving money by allowing overseas countries to mark exams, thus providing schools with more funds.

  -language barriers, ethnocentric, therefore not a fair examination

  -myth used to legitimise the turning of education into a source of private profit

  - Ball argues that education is being turned into a ' legitimate object of private profit making
• PISA tests/ international ranking

  PISA tests

  One way in which globalisation has influenced educational policy in the UK is through the creation of international rankings. Ranking systems, such as the PISA tests, enable education systems to compare the performance of their students in maths, English and science against students globally.

  Governments can easily compare the performance of their own students against those of other countries and this enables them to quantitatively examine the impacts of teaching, learning and assessment strategies as well as government educational policies.

  Evaluation:

  -economic and cultural factors in some countries can explain a difference in test results, e.g poverty may account for 50% of differences.

  -tests are very narrow, focussing on English, maths and science, which reflects the bias' of ruling class who designed them

  -increases pressure on national governments, which can increase the amount of testing rather than education
• Multiculturalism


  P3- Multiculturalism

  Increased immigration has led to more multiculturalism and British schools have long had multicultural education in response to this, which also changes pupils' experiences of education. For example, religious education has long taught about other religions, and increasingly schools and colleges have events such as 'black history month' raising awareness of diversity. Schools have also introduced compensatory education to help recent immigrants from Eastern Europe, such as extra support for pupils who don't have English as a first language.

  +some would argue that this is beneficial as the eurocentric curriculum may alienate some individuals
• Expansion of privatisation


  P4- Expansion of privatisation

  
  

  A further example of the influence of globalisation in educational policy has been the expansion of privatisation in the education system. Neo-liberal

  economic policy has become the dominant economic policy in the era of globalisation, partly because of the role of the IMF and other International Governmental Organisations. This has led to a rapid expansion of the

  educational market to be a multi-billion-pound operation that provides large profits for UK based educational institutions.

  
  

  -However, critics of these polices would suggest that there is an ulterior motive for the rapid expansion of UK educational institutions into the developing world.

  Marxists would suggest that the spread of Western education with its ideals of meritocracy and capitalism is a form of cultural imperialism that facilitates the spread of capitalist ideologies such as neo-liberalism and individualism