civil rights

• how were black americans treated in the early 1950s?

  they were second class citizens.

  in the south they faced segregation, discrimination and voting rights.
• how were black americans segregated and discriminated in southern states in the early 1950s?

  • 'jim crow' laws were used to segregate white and blacks.
  • law stated segregation was ok as services were 'separate but equal'.
  • public facilities - cinemas, schools, transport and toilets.
  • in baltimore, maryland, in 1955 white students protested to keep schools segregated.
• how were southern states violent to black americans in the early 1950s?

  • white viewed black americans as racially inferior.
  • racist white officials (police and judges) were often members of the KKK.
  • frequent assaults and murders of black americans were not investigated properly.
  • black people not allowed to sit on juries in a court.
• how were black american voting rights in southern states in early 1950s?

  • white gangs physically stopped them from voting by attacking them.
  • some states like georgia and virginia, passed laws making it hard for them to vote, e.g. using unfair literary tests.
  • the 'grandfather clause' was where voters had to prove their fathers had voted, which was impossible for slaves.
  • white employers sacked black workers if they tried to vote.
• what civil rights organisations already existed in southern states?

  NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People)

  • set up in 1909.
  • fought for civil rights using the legal system.
  • defended black people who were unfairly convicted.
  • focused on the overturning of 'separate but equal'
• what civil rights organisations already existed in southern states?

  CORE (Congress of Racial Equality)

  • set up in 1942.
  • smaller membership then NAACP.
  • members used non violent direct action and trained local activists in these techniques.
  • operated mostly in northern states.
  • most members were white and middle class.
• what was the brown vs topeka case?

  • 5 desegregation cases the NAACP put together and took to the supreme court.
  • used the experiences of linda brown in a segregated school.
  • argued that the principle of 'separate but equal' in schools was unconstitutional as it damaged black children.
• when was the principle of 'separate but equal' introduced?

  in 1896, the supreme court ruled that racial segregation was constitutional as long as facilities were equal.

  however, black facilities were often underfunded and in poor conditions.
• what was the short term significance of the brown v. topeka case?

  • brown rulings overturned the 1896 plessy v. ferguson decision to segregate public facilities.
  • white backlash and the KKK increased.
  • black students and teachers faced threats and hostility.
  • some black schools were shut down.
  • southern states found a way to avoid complying with the rulings.
• what was the long term significance of the brown v. topeka case?

  • awareness of civil rights increased.
  • acted as an inspiration for other desegregation campaigns.
  • white americans moved away from areas where black people lived.
  • by 1957, 723 schools desegregated.
• who were the 'little rock nine'?

  1. about 75 black students applied to little rock high school and the school board only accepted 25.
  2. families were faced with threats if they tried to take places in the school.
  3. in 1957, only 9 students still planned to register.
  4. they were known as the 'little rock nine' by the campaigners who took up their case.
• what was the role of governor orval faubus at little rock, 1957?

  • after the 1954 brown case, faubus, state governor of arkansas, was an opposer of school desegregation.
  • in 1958, he closed every school in little rock to try stop racial integration.
  • this lasted a year before parents forced him to reopen them
• events at little rock, 1957

  1. following the brown case, little rock high school would be desegregated on 3 september 1957.
  2. the NAACP arranged for the 9 students to arrive together on 4 september.
  3. faubus sent 250 state troops to surround the school when they were supposed to arrive and claimed it was to 'keep the peace' however this blocked them from entering.
  4. elizabeth ekford didn't recieve the message to arrive together and she was targeted by the crowd with racial abuse.
  5. on 24 september, eisenhower sent federal troops so they could enter the school without being attacked.
• what was the impact of presidential intervention during little rock, 1957?

  • worldwide media coverage forced eisenhower to get involved as the usa's image was getting damaged.
  • rioting outside the school after the state troops had been removed led eisenhower to send in 1000 federal troops.
  • he used a presidential order as he knew congress would disapprove of the decision to intervene.
• what was the significance of the events at little rock?

  • hundreds of reporters showed the events and people were shocked of how children were being abused.
  • continued resistance to school integration after 1957.
  • in the south many schools shut down.
  • when the first black student graduated from little rock, white students refused to sit with him.
  • continued violence, intimidation and exclusion from teachers and peers.
• what were short term causes of the montgomery bus boycott, 1955?

  • on 1 december 1955, rosa parks refused to give up her seat in the 'black area' of the bus to a white man who had no seat.
  • police arrested and charged her under montgomery's segregation laws.
• what were long term causes of the montgomery bus boycott, 1955?

  • women's political council in montgomery had focused on bus discrimination since 1950.
  • the bus company discriminated against black passengers by forcing them to sit at the back and give up seats for white people.
  • requests to change their rules were ignored.
• events of the montgomery bus boycott, 1955

  1. 5 december - civil rights activists formed the montgomery improvement association (MIA) and elected martin luther king as chairman.
  2. 8 december - MIA met bus officials who refused to negotiate, so they continued their boycott.
  3. 12 december - MIA held meetings with church groups etc to discuss car sharing and car pools began to involve over 300 cars.
  4. MIA also negotiated reduced cab fares to the price of a standard bus ticket.
  5. 30 january 1956 - MLK's home was bombed and he responded by holding a peaceful protest.
• what was the significance of rosa parks in the montgomery bus boycott, 1955?

  • she was a married woman so it was difficult to criticise her for bad behaviour.
  • understood the principle of non-violent direct action.
  • already been involved in campaigns for black voter registration.
  • secretary of the montgomery NAACP.
• why did the montgomery bus boycott succeed?

  • well organised.
  • committed to success (continued despite threats).
  • well publicised.
  • bus company was hurt financially.
• what was the court hearing involved with the mongomery bus boycott?

  the NAACP brought a case to the supreme court to desegregate buses.

  on 1 feb 1956, lawyers filed brown v. gayle and argued against the 14th amendment.

  • 5 june - supreme court ruled desegregation on buses and the bus company appealed but the appeal was rejected on 17 december.
  • 20 december - MIA called off the boycott.
• what was the significance of martin luther king in the montgomery bus boycott, 1955?

  • was a pastor and emphasised the christian views of love.
  • non violent approach.
  • many powerful speeches.
  • tried to appeal to all americans despite their race.
  • helped raise funds for the MIA and boost morale.
  • arrested in 1956 for his part in organising the boycott.
• what was the southern christian leadership conference (SCLC)?

  • set up in jan 1957 to coordinate church based protests across the south.
  • led by mlk and ralph abernathy.
  • non violent direct action.
  • black and white membership.
  • earliest major campaign was for voter registration.
• what was the 1957 civil rights act?

  the brown case and the bus boycott led to increased public support for civil rights, which led to a civil rights act being passed in congress.

  • aimed to increase black voter registration.
  • make it illegal to obstruct voter registration.
  • allow federal courts to prosecute states that did not guarantee voter rights

  however, the south weren't likely to uphold these laws.
• who were the kkk (ku klux klan)?

  • set up in 1865 after black slaves won their freedom.
  • wanted to stop black americans gaining equality (mostly in southern states).
  • terrorised black families by intimidation and extreme violence including murder, often by lynching.
  • only WASPs (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) could join.
  • wore hoods as membership was secret although law officers often were involved.
  • also attacked jews, catholics and liberals.
• who was emmett till?

  a 14 year old black boy from chicago, who went to missisippi in 1955 to visit family.
• what happened to emmett till in 1955?

  1. carolyn bryant said that till made sexual advances when he went to her store.
  2. till's cousins said he only wolf-whistled at her.
  3. the next night, brynant's husband and his brother abducted till and beat him severely.
  4. they shot him and threw him in a river with a weight around his neck, his body was found 3 days later.
• what was the significance of emmett till's murder?

  • his mother had an open casket funeral which led to extensive media coverage which caused widespread shock and outrage.
  • the murder trial was reported nationwide however the defendants were not found guilty.
  • they later admitted to the murder in a magazine.
• why did emmett till's murder get no justice?

  • after the trial, black people continued to be murdered and killers were rarely convicted.
  • NAACP leader, george w. lee, was murdered in 1955 and it remains unsolved.
  • media reporting led to the growth of the civil rights movement.
• what booklet did the NAACP publish in 1955?

  • 'M is for Mississippi and Murder'.
  • highlighted the murders of black people that went unpunished.
• how did federals oppose the civils rights?

  • opposed by some members of the southern congress.
  • the dixiecrats (a group from the democratic party made of southern politicians) wanted to keep segregation.
  • by 1954 they rejoined the democrats after previously breaking away due to disagreements.
  • they believed they could have more influence from within the democratic party.
  • presidents needed the dixiecrats' support in congress so had to listen to their views, but were fearful they would disrupt government.
• how did state oppose to civil rights?

  • state wanted to keep segregation and would find ways to oppose racial mixing.
  • they believed having only white judges in court was the best way to uphold justice.
• what were types of political resistance?

  • shutting down all state schools so they couldn't be integrated.
  • school admission tests were biased against black students to prevent them joining.
  • refused to end literary tests for voting and disrupted opportunities for black voters at elections.
• why did state officers use political resistance?

  they could claim to follow the letter of the law to desegregate, however did not stick to the spirit of laws.
• who were the white citizens council?

  • WCC.
  • set up from 1954 onwards to stop desegregation.
  • around 60,000 members.
  • used violence to stop integration mainly in schools.
  • used economic means, for example, some WCC members sacked black employees who signed petitions or were involved in civil rights activities.
• events of the greensboro sit-ins, 1960.

  • 1 feb 1960, 4 black students in north carolina (david richmond, izell blair, franklin mcclain, joseph mcneil) waited to be served at a segregated lunch counter.
  • when they were asked to leave the white area, they refused and remained in the store until closing time.
  • their aim was to generate publicity.
  • 25 more students arrived the next day, and by 4 feb, more than 300 joined including white students.
  • these began to spread to other towns in north carolina.
  • due to loss of earnings, in july, the store desegregated however many stores did not until 1965
• how were the greenboro sit-ins organised?

  • CORE and SCLC sent experienced campaigners to train students in nonviolent protest methods.
  • 15 april 1960 - the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was set up to train students to cope with hostility and harassment they faced during sit-ins.
• what was the significance of the greensboro sit-ins?

  • white and black supporters.
  • media coverage.
  • visible to public.
  • spread quickly.
  • young people were keen to protest.
  • mass support (about 50,000).
• how did civil rights groups test out supreme court rulings?

  • in 1956, the court ruled that state transport should be desegregated, however bus station toilets and waiting rooms remained segregated.
  • december 1960, the court ordered the desegregation of facilities.
  • 1961, CORE activists organised bus journeys from the north to the deep south to test if this worked.
  • its aim was to create negative media coverage of segregation.
• the freedom riders, 1961.

  • 4 may - thirteen groups started from washington dc on two buses.
  • 14 may - first bus reached alabama and was attacked by 100 KKK who threw a firebomb into the bus; the second bus was also attacked.
  • 17 may - SNCC organised a journey to alabama again but were stopped by a crowd of segregationists.
  • 20 may - police escorted riders to montgomery but left them when a white mob attacked them
  • 24 may - police escorted a new group but didn't help the riders when they got arrested.
  • 1 nov - the federal government threatened states to enforce integration.