neurology

• What do afferent pathways carry towards the CNS?

  Sensory signals
• What do efferent pathways carry away from the CNS?

  Motor signals
• What are the subdivisions of the nervous system?

  • Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• What is the function of the Somatic Nervous System (SNS)?


  Transmits signals to skeletal muscles
• What does the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulate?

  Internal organs and glands
• What is the origin of the Parasympathetic system?

  Craniosacral
• What is the primary function of the Sympathetic system?

  Prepares the body for activity
• What is dual innervation in the ANS?

  • Organs receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic inputs
  • Often have opposite effects
• How does the sympathetic system affect the pupil?

  Dilates the pupil
• What effect does the sympathetic system have on the heart?

  Increases rate and force
• How does the sympathetic system affect the GI tract?

  Reduces activity
• What are the effects of the Fight or Flight response?

  Increases:

  • Heart rate
  • Blood sugar
  • Blood flow to skeletal muscles
  • Bronchodilation

  Decreases:

  • Digestion
• What neurotransmitter is associated with the sympathetic system?

  Noradrenaline
• What neurotransmitter is associated with the parasympathetic system?

  Acetylcholine (ACh)
• What are the differences between somatic and autonomic innervation?

  Somatic:

  • Single neuron pathway
  • Voluntary control

  Autonomic:

  • Two-neuron pathway
  • Involuntary control
• What do pre-ganglionic neurons release in the autonomic system?

  Acetylcholine (ACh)
• What neurotransmitter do sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons mostly release?

  Noradrenaline
• What neurotransmitter do parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons release?

  Acetylcholine (ACh)
• What are the types of post-ganglionic receptors?

  Sympathetic:

  • Adrenoceptors (α1, α2, β1, β2, β3)

  Parasympathetic:

  • Muscarinic ACh receptors (M1-M5)
• What type of signaling do action potentials represent?

  Electrical signaling
• What triggers neurotransmitter exocytosis?

  Ca²⁺ influx
• What are the postsynaptic effects of neurotransmitters?

  • Excitatory (EPSPs): Depolarization
  • Inhibitory (IPSPs): Hyperpolarization
• What are the types of summation in neuronal communication?

  • Temporal: Repeated firing from one neuron
  • Spatial: Multiple neurons stimulate simultaneously
• What are key excitatory neurotransmitters?

  • Acetylcholine (ACh)
  • Noradrenaline (NA)
  • Dopamine
  • Glutamate
  • Serotonin (5-HT)
• What is the key inhibitory neurotransmitter?

  Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
• What are the two types of ACh receptors?

  Nicotinic and Muscarinic
• What is the effect of M2 receptors?

  Cardiac inhibition
• What is the synthesis process of Acetylcholine?

  Choline acetylation by choline acetyltransferase
• What is the rate-limiting step in Noradrenaline synthesis?

  Tyrosine hydroxylase
• What are the metabolic pathways for Noradrenaline?

  • MAO (Monoamine Oxidase)
  • COMT (Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase)
• What is the final product of Noradrenaline metabolism?

  VMA
• What inhibits Noradrenaline reuptake?

  Cocaine and amphetamines
• What do chromaffin cells release during stress?

  Adrenaline
• What enzyme converts Noradrenaline to Adrenaline?

  PNMT
• What are the key takeaways from the nervous system overview?

  • Know receptors/targets for ACh & NA
  • Understand synthesis & degradation pathways for ACh & NA
  • Recognize functional differences between sympathetic & parasympathetic systems