Retrieval failure

• Retrieval failure due to the absence of insufficient cues

  People may forget information because of insufficient cues.

  When information is initially placed in memory associated cues are stored at the same time. If these cues are not available at the time of recall it may appear as if you have forgotten the information due to retrieval failure not being able to access memories that are these.
• Who reviewed research into retrieval failure in 1983?

  Endel Tulving
• What is the consistent pattern discovered by Tulving called?

  Encoding specificity principle
• What does the encoding specificity principle state?

  A cue must be present at encoding and retrieval
• What happens if the cues at encoding and retrieval are different?

  There will be some forgetting
• How are some cues encoded at the time of learning?

  In a meaningful way
• What cue might lead you to recall information about short term memory?

  STM
• What are mnemonic techniques used for?

  • To aid memory recall
  • To create meaningful associations
  • To enhance learning efficiency
• What is context dependent forgetting?

  Recall depends on external cues like weather
• What is state dependent forgetting?

  Recall depends on internal cues like feelings
• How does feeling upset affect memory recall?

  It serves as an internal cue for retrieval
• How does being drunk affect memory recall?

  It serves as an internal cue for retrieval
• Research on context-dependent forgetting

  Procedure

  Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley in 1975 studied deep sea divers who work underwater to see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater.

  The divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or on land.

  4 conditions:

  -              Learn on land-recall on land

  -              Learn on land-recall underwater

  -              Learn underwater-recall on land

  -              Learn underwater-recall underwater
• Findings of research on state-dependent forgetting

  Findings

  In the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse. So when cues absent you are Drowsy when recalling information but had been alert learning it, then there is more forgetting.
• What is a strength of retrieval cues in everyday situations?

  They help overcome some forgetting
• What does Baddeley suggest about the effect of cues on forgetting?

  Cues may not have a strong effect, but are worth attention
• What common experience illustrates the role of environmental cues in memory recall?

  Forgetting an item when moving to another room
• What happens when you return to the first room after forgetting an item?

  You often remember what you wanted
• Why is it worthwhile to recall the environment in which you learned something?

  It can help improve memory recall
• How can research on memory strategies be applied in real life?

  • Research shows effective memory strategies
  • Strategies can improve recall in everyday situations
  • Environmental cues can aid memory retrieval
• Research support

  Another strength is the impressive range of research that supports the retrieval failure explanation.

  Studies by godden and baddeley and carter and cassaday are examples because they show a lack of relevant cues at recall can lead to context dependent and state dependent forgetting in everyday life.

  Memory researchers Michael Eysneck and Mark Keane in 2010 argue that retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting from LTM.

  This evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real world situations as well as in highly controlled conditions of the lab.
• Who argued that context effects are not very strong in everyday life?

  Baddeley in 1997
• What does Baddeley argue about the strength of context effects?

  They are not very strong in everyday life
• How does learning in one room and recalling in another affect forgetting?

  It is unlikely to result in much forgetting
• Why might retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues not explain much everyday forgetting?

  Because environments are generally not different enough
• What are the implications of Baddeley's argument on context effects for everyday forgetting?

  • Context effects are weak in daily life
  • Significant differences in context are needed
  • Everyday environments often do not differ much
• What is a limitation of context effects in memory testing?

  They may depend on the type of memory tested
• What did Godden and Baddeley replicate in their 1980 experiment?

  They replicated an underwater experiment with recognition
• In the 1980 experiment, what did participants have to do in the recognition test?

  Say whether they recognized a word read to them
• What was the outcome when recognition was tested in the experiment?

  No context-dependent effect was observed
• What does the study suggest about retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?

  It is limited to recall, not recognition
• Problems with the ESP

  There is a lot of evidence that forgetting takes place when there is a mismatch of encoding and retrieval cues and Tulving s encoding specificity principle.

  However it is possible to indepdently establish whether a cue has been encoded or not. The reasoning is circular and based on assumptions. In an experiment, if a cue did not produce recall we assume it cannot have been encoded. If cue did produce recall we assume it must have been encoded.