Cultural bias

• Cultural bias occurs when psychological research, theories, or tests do not account for cultural differences and instead assume that findings from one cultural group apply universally.
• Cultural bias occurs when psychological research or theories:

  • Assume findings from one culture apply universally
  • Judge behaviours from other cultures against a Western "standard"
  • Failing to consider cultural differences in behaviour interpretation
• Ethnocentricism occurs when a researcher judges other cultures by the standards of one's own culture, often with an assumption of superiority.

  • It often leads to the belief that one's culture is "normal" or "superior", while others are seen as "abnormal" or "inferior".
• An example of ethnocentricism is Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970):

  • Assumed moderate separation anxiety and comfort-seeking behaviour = secure attachment (American norm)
  • German mothers are seen as "cold" rather than encouraging independence
  • Japanese infants are seen as "overly clingy" rather than showing the cultural norm of constant proximity
  • These children may be seen as securely attached within their culture
• Ainsworth's strange situation is ethnocentric because it led to the misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other countries that deviated from American norms.

  • Therefore, it is an inappropriate measure of attachment for non-American cultures.
• Cultural relativism is the view that behavior can only be properly understood within its cultural context.
• Etic vs Emic Approaches (Berry 1969):

  • Etic: Studies behaviour from outside a culture, seeking universality (risk of imposed etic)
  • Emic: Studies behavior from within a culture, identifying culture-specific behaviors
• Ainsworth's strange situation is an example of imposed etic.

  • She studied behaviour within a single culture (America) and then assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally.
• Individualist culture is associated with Western cultures, which are thought to value personal freedoms and independence.
• Collectivist culture is associated with Eastern cultures, which place a greater emphasis on interdependence and the needs of a group.
• Asch's conformity studies show cultural bias as US participants showed different results than replications in collectivist cultures.
• Milgram's obedience studies show cultural bias as findings differed when replicated in other countries (e.g., Kilham & Mann 1974)
• Diagnosis of mental illness shows cultural bias as there are higher rates of schizophrenia diagnosis in African-Caribbean populations in the UK.
• One strength of recognising cultural bias is that it has led to greater cultural awareness in psychology. Historically, psychological research has been dominated by Western perspectives, limiting its applicability to non-Western cultures. However, acknowledging cultural bias has encouraged researchers to consider cultural diversity when designing studies, leading to more valid and representative findings. For example, the development of indigenous psychologies, such as Afrocentrism, challenges Western dominance and promotes culturally relevant theories.
• Another strength is that increased awareness of cultural bias has improved cross-cultural research. Psychologists now conduct studies in multiple cultures to test whether theories are universal or culture-specific. Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988), for instance, compared attachment styles across different countries, highlighting cultural variations rather than assuming a single standard. This enhances the external validity of psychological theories by ensuring they apply to a wider range of populations.
• A key issue is ethnocentrism, where researchers judge behaviours by their own cultural standards, assuming universality. For example, Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1970) labelled German mothers as "cold" for encouraging independence, while Japanese infants were seen as "overly clingy" for seeking constant proximity - both deviations from the American "secure" norm. This demonstrates imposed etic (Berry, 1969), where Western norms are wrongly generalised. Consequently, findings lack population validity, as they ignore cultural variations in parenting styles. If psychologists fail to recognise such bias, they risk pathologising normal cultural differences, reducing the credibility of theories like attachment.
• One limitation of cultural bias is that it can exaggerate differences between cultures. Takano and Osaka (1999) reviewed 15 studies comparing Japan and the USA on individualism-collectivism and found that 93.3% (14/15) did not support the expected cultural differences. This challenges the assumption that Western cultures are always individualistic and Eastern cultures are collectivist, suggesting globalisation may be reducing cultural differences. Overgeneralising cultures can lead to imposed etic, where behaviours are misinterpreted using Western norms, reducing research validity.