Holism and reductionism

• Holism is the argument that behaviour should be studied as a whole, rather than breaking it down into its component parts.
• Holistic explanations acknowledge the complexity of behavior, considering how biological, cognitive, and social factors interact.
• The holistic perspective is supported by the humanistic approach, which emphasises subjective experience and the importance of the individual.

  • For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs considers multiple aspects of human motivation rather than isolating single influences.
• Reductionism is the opposite of holism, as it breaks down complex behaviour into simpler components. This approach is useful in scientific research because it allows for controlled experimentation and precise measurement.
• Reductionism is based on the scientific principle of parsimony: that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles. It exists in two forms: biological reductionism and environmental reductionism.
• Biological reductionism suggests that all behaviour is at some level biological. It explains behaviour in terms of genes, neurotransmitters, and brain structure. For example, schizophrenia is often linked to dopamine levels.
• Environmental reductionism explains behaviour through stimulus-response associations, as seen in behaviourist theories like classical and operant conditioning.
• The levels of explanation refer to the different ways that behaviour can be understood, ranging from biological to socio-cultural perspectives.

  • Explanations exist on a hierarchy, with lower levels being more reductionist and higher levels being more holistic.
• The three main levels of explanation:

  • Biological level (lowest level)
  • Psychological level (middle level)
  • Socio-cultural level (highest level)
• Biological Level (Lowest Level)

  • Focuses on genes, neurochemistry, and brain structure as explanations for behavior.
  • Example: Schizophrenia is explained in terms of excess dopamine activity or genetic inheritance.
• Psychological Level (Middle Level)

  • Focuses on cognitive, behavioural, and psychodynamic processes.
  • Example: Frith (1992) proposed that schizophrenia is linked to faulty metarepresentation, meaning individuals struggle to distinguish between their own thoughts and external stimuli, leading to hallucinations.
• Socio-cultural Level (Highest Level)

  • This level considers how family, environment, and social norms influence behaviour.
  • Example: Bateson et al. (1956) proposed the double bind theory, suggesting that contradictory messages in childhood may contribute to schizophrenia.
• Reductionism focuses on lower levels (biological or psychological) and aims for a simple, testable explanation.
• Holism emphasises higher levels, recognizing that behaviour results from multiple interacting factors.
• Psychology can be placed within a hierarchy of science, with more precise or 'micro' of these disciplines at the bottom, and the more general and 'macro' of these at the top.

  • Physics is the most 'micro' so it is the most reductionist.
  • Sociology is the most 'macro' so it is the least reductionist.
• One strength of holism is that it provides a more complete and realistic explanation of behaviour by considering multiple influences. For example, in social influence, conformity and obedience cannot be fully understood by studying individuals in isolation; instead, they must be analysed in the context of group interactions. By taking a holistic approach, psychologists can capture the complexity of human behaviour, making theories more applicable to real-life situations.
• A major advantage of reductionism is that it enables scientific investigation, making theories more testable and objective. Breaking behaviour down into smaller components allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships. For example, biological explanations of mental disorders have led to effective treatments such as antipsychotics for schizophrenia, which target neurotransmitter (dopamine) imbalances. This increases the credibility of psychology and demonstrates how it can have practical value.
• A criticism of reductionism is its oversimplification. While breaking behaviour down into smaller components allows for scientific study, it may overlook factors. For example, reducing schizophrenia to dopamine activity overlooks important psychological factors, such as family dysfunction. This biological reductionism has led to treatments like antipsychotic drugs, but these do not work for all patients, suggesting that a broader approach is needed. Therefore, reductionism, while useful in research, may lack ecological validity as it does not fully explain real-life behaviour.
• Holism is criticised for lacking scientific rigor. Holistic explanations consider multiple factors, making them difficult to test empirically. For example, the humanistic approach emphasises subjective experience, but it lacks objective measurement, making it hard to establish cause-and-effect relationships. In contrast, reductionist approaches, despite their limitations, allow for the development of targeted treatments, such as medication for mental disorders. Therefore, while holism is valuable in theory, its lack of testability limits its practical application.
• A more comprehensive explanation is the diathesis-stress model, which combines multiple levels of explanation. This model suggests that genetic vulnerability (diathesis) interacts with environmental triggers (stress) to cause schizophrenia. Tienari et al. (2004) found that adopted children with a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia were more likely to develop the disorder if raised in dysfunctional families. This highlights the importance of considering both biological and environmental factors, making the interactionist approach the most valid explanation.