Psychopathology paper 1

• Definitions of abnormality (1)- Statistical infrequency

  • occurs when an individual has less common characteristic, for example being more depressed than the population
  • For instance, majority's people's scores will cluster around the average and the further we go above/below average, the fewer people attain the score- normal distribution
  • In normal distribution, most people (68%) have score in range from 85-115. Only 2% of people have a score below 70 are very abnormal, liable to receive diagnosis of IDD.
• Deviation from social norms

  • People choose to define behaviour as abnormal on basis that it offends their sense of what is acceptable or the norm.
  • Norms are specific to the culture we live in- few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal on the basis that they breach social norms e.g. homosexuality
• Antisocial personality disorder

  • are impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible,
  • According to DSM-5, one important symptom of this is absence of prosocial behaviour. we are making social judgement that psychopaths are abnormal as they don't conform to our moral standards.
  • Psychopathic behaviour would be considered abnormal in wide range of cultures
• One strength of statistical infrequency

  • Real world application- used in clinical practice, both as part of formal diagnosis and assess severity of person's symptoms. e.g. diagnosis of IDD requires IQ below 70.
  • Example of statistical infrequency used in assessment tool is Beck depression inventory.
  • A score of 30+ is widely interrupted as indicating severe depression.
  • Shows value of the statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes.
• One limitation of statistical infrequency

  • Infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative.
  • for every person with IQ below 70 there is another with 30. Similarly we wouldn't think of someone having high IQ and low IQ as abnormal for having it.
  • These examples show that being unusual or at one end of a psychological spectrum doesn't necessarily make someone abnormal.
  • Means that although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality.
• One strength of deviation from social norms

  • Real world application- used in clinical practice, the key defining characteristic of APD is failure to conform to culturally acceptable behaviour. These signs of aggression and so on are all deviations from social norms.
  • Such norms play part in diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder where 'strange' is used to characterise the thinking, behaviour and appearance of people with the disorder.
  • Shows that deviation from social norms has value in psychiatry.
• One limitation of deviation from norms

  • Cultural and situational relativism- A person from one cultural group may a label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards than the person's standards.
  • Eg hearing voices may be a norm in some other cultures but abnormal in parts of UK. Social norms differ from one situation to another- aggressive and deceitful behaviour in context of family life is more socially unacceptable than in context of corporate deal-making.
  • Means that's difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures.
• Definition of abnormality (2) - Failure to function adequately

  • When a person crosses the line of abnormal and normal at the point when they can no longer cope with demands of everyday life.
  • Martin Seligman 1989 - proposed some signs that can be used to determine when someone isn't coping- when someone conforms to standard interpersonal rules like maintaining eye contact, when person experiences personal distress, behaviour becomes irrational, dangerous.
  • Example- IDD, diagnosis would not only be on this basis but also they must be failing to function adequately before diagnosis was given
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  • Marie Jahoda 1958- suggested we are in ideal mental health if- we have no symptoms or distress, self actualise, cope with stress, independent, successfully work and enjoy leisure.
  • there is an overlap between deviation from ideal mental health and failure to function adequately e.g. Somone's inability to keep a job as either a failure to cope with pressures of work or as a deviation from ideal of successfully working
• One strength of failure to function

  • Represents a threshold for help- according to the mental health charity Mind, around 25% people in UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year.
  • However many press on in the face of fairly severe symptoms.
  • tends to be at the point that we cease to function adequately that people help or are noticed.
  • means that treatment and services can be targeted for those who need them most
• One limitation of failure to function adequately


  Discrimination and social control- easy to label non standard lifestyle choices as abnormal. e.g. not having a job or permanent address might seem like failing to function and for some it might be.

  Similarly those who favour high-risk leisure activities or unusual spiritual practices could be classed, unreasonably as irrational and danger to self

  means people who make unusual choices are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted.
• One strength of the ideal mental health

  • It's highly comprehensive. Jahoda's concept of IMH includes a range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from disorder.
  • In turn means individual's mental health can be discussed meaningfully with professionals who might take theoretical views
  • E.g. medically trained psychiatrist may focus on symptoms but humanistic counsellor may be more interested in self-actualisation
  • means ideal mental health provides checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others, discuss psychological issues with range of professionals
• One limitation of ideal mental health


  May be culture-bound- different elements aren't equally applicable across a range of cultures

  Some of Johada's criteria of ideal mental health are firmly located in context of US and Europe generally.

  Concept of self-actualisation would be probably be dismissed as self-indulgent in much of world. e.g. high in Germany and low in Italy.

  What defines success in our working, social and love-lives is very different in different cultures

  Means that it's difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
• Phobias- irrational fear of object or situation


  There are 3 types of phobias

  specifc phobia, agraphobia- phobia of being outside or in public place

  social anxiety
• Behavioural characterstics of phobias


  We respond by feelings high levels of anxiety and trying to escape

  Panic- person with phobia may panic in repsonse to presence of phobic stimulus. Panic may involve screaming, crying, kids react differently like traumatised, clinging or having tantrum.

  Avoidance- tend to go to a lot of effort to prevent coming intop contact with phobic stimulus- hard to go about in daily life

  Endurance- alternative response o avoidance is endurance, occurs when person chooses to remain in presence of phobic stimulus.
• Emotional characteristics of phobias


  Anxiety- unpleasant state of high arousal, prevents a person relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion, long term as well.

  Fear- immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus- usually more intense but experienced for shorter periods than anxiety.

  Emotional- e.g. person will have strong emotional response to tiny spider. Most people would respond in less anxious way even to poisonous spider.
• Cognitive characteristics of phobia include selective attention to phobic stimulus, which is when an individual finds it difficult to look away from a potentially dangerous thing, providing the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat.
• Irrational beliefs are a common feature of phobia, as individuals may have unfounded thoughts in reaction to a phobic stimulus, which cannot easily be explained and don't have any basis on reality.
• Cognitive distortions are another aspect of phobia, as perceptions may be inaccurate and unrealistic.
• Examples of cognitive distortions in phobia include looking at mushrooms and seeing them as disgusting, as seen in mycophobia.
• Depression 


  mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels
• Behavioural characteristics of depression

  Activity levels- they have reduced levels of energy, tending to withdraw from work, education and social life. In extreme cases, they can't even get out of bed.

  Psychomotor agitation- struggle to relax and end up pacing up and down the room.

  Disruption to sleep- insomnia, or hypersomnia, appetite can increase/decrease leading to weight gain/loss.

  Aggression and - e.g. someone with severe depression may display verbal aggression by ending relationship or quitting job, self-harm or even suicidal thoughts and attempts.
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  Lowered mood- defines emotional element of depression but it's more pronounced than in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad, describing oneself worthless, empty.

  Anger- can be directed at others or self, such emotions lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviour on some occasions.

  Lowered self-esteem- emotional experience of how much we like ourselves, tend to report reduced self-esteem and can be extreme with some describing as self-loathing i.e. hating themselves.
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  Depression- tend to process info about several aspects of world quite differently from 'normal' ways

  Poor concentration- hard to make decisions and likely to interfere with their work life.

  Attending to and dwelling on negative- inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of situation also have bias towards recalling unhappy events.

  Absolute thinking- Most situations are not all-good/bad, but tend to think in these terms- black and white thinking. Means that when situation is unfortunate tend to see it as an absolute disaster.
• OCD


  A condition characterised by obessions are cognitive whereas compulsions are behavioural.
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD


  Compulsions are repetitive-handwashing, counting, praying as they feel compelled to repeat a behaviour
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD include compulsions which are repetitive as the individual feels compelled to repeat the behaviour.
• Compulsions reduce anxiety as there are no obsessions, producing a general sense of irrational anxiety.
• Compulsions are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions.
• Examples of compulsions include handwashing, which is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs.
• Avoidance is a characteristic of OCD, being characterised by avoidance in an attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations triggering it.
• People with OCD often manage their condition by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety, for example, washing compulsively to avoid coming in contact with germs but this can lead to avoidance of ordinary situations.
• Emotional Characteristics of OCD

  Anxiety and distress- OCD regarded as unpleasant experience as of the powerful anxiety that accompanies both obsessions and compulsions. Obsessive thoughts- frightening and urge to repeat behaviour creates anxiety.

  Accompanying depression- OCD often accompanied with depression so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood, lack of enjoyment in activities. CB tends to bring some relief from anxiety but temporary.

  Guilt and disgust- OCD can involve irrational guilt, e.g. over minor moral issues, disgust which may be directed against something like dirt of self.
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD.

  Usually plagued with obsessive thoughts but also adopt cognitive strategies to deal with these.

  Obsessive thoughts- 90% of people with OCD - the major cognitive feature of their condition. e.g. of recuring thoughts- worries of being contaminated by germs, impulses to hurt someone.

  Cognitive coping strategies- to deal with their obsessions, e.g. religious person tormented by obsessive guilt may respond by praying- help manage anxiety but can make person abnormal to others, can distract them from tasks
• Cogntive characteristics of OCD (2)


  Insights into excessive anxiety- if they believe their obsessive thoughts were based on reality, be symptom quite different form of mental disorder. OCD causes- to be hypervigilant- constant alertness.
• Behavioural approach to explaining behaviours

  • Emphasises role of learning in acquisition of behaviour.
  • Mowrer 1960- proposed two process model based on behavioural approach to phobia
  • states that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and then continue because of operant conditioning.
• Acquisition by classical conditioning


  Watson and Rayner 1920- created phobia in Little Albert and showed no anxiety and when shown a white rat he tried to play with it. But experimenters then gave a phobia when rat was presented to him, they made loud, scary noises by banging on iron bar close to Albert's ear. Noise is the unconditioned stimulus which creates unconditioned response of fear.

  When rat and UCS are encountered together in time, NS becomes associated with UCS and produce fear response. Now rat is CS producing CR and his distress was displayed on all similar objects
• Maintenance by operant conditioning

  • Phobias often long-lasting and Mowrer explained this as result of operant conditioning
  • In the case of negative reinforcement, individual avoids situation that's unpleasant, such a behaviour results in desirable consequence which means behaviour will be repeated.
  • He suggested whenever we avoid phobic stimulus we successfully escape fear and anxiety that we could have experienced if we remained there. This reduction in fear reinforces avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.
• Real world application- One strength

  Exposure therapies- distinctive element of two process model is idea that phobias are maintained by avoidance of phobic stimulus. Important in explaining why people with phobias benefit from being exposed to PS. Once the avoidance behaviour is prevented it ceases to be reinforced by experience of anxiety reduction and avoidance declines, phobia is cured

  Shows the value of the two process model as it identifies a means of treating phobias.
• One limitation- Cognitive aspects of phobias

  Two process model doesn't account for cognitive aspects of phobias.

  Phobias- key behaviour is avoidance of PS. But phobias aren't simply avoidance responses but have significant cognitive component.

  E.g. people hold irrational beliefs about PS, two process model explains avoidance behaviour but doesn't offer an adequate explanation for phobic cognitions

  This means that the two-process model does not completely explain the symptoms of phobias.