Language And Gender Theories

• What is vocal fry?

  A specific sound quality from vocal folds
• How do vocal folds behave in vocal fry?

  They are shortened and slack, closing completely
• What effect does vocal fry produce?

  A characteristic sizzling or frying sound
• Who discusses verbal hygiene in relation to gender?

  Deborah Cameron
• What does verbal hygiene refer to?

  Normative expectations about speech for genders
• How does Cameron view verbal hygiene?

  As a way to make sense of language
• What does Kate Burridge argue about political correctness?

  It is more than just sensitivity in language
• What does Deborah Jones categorize women's oral culture into?

  House Talk, Scandal, Bitching, and Chatting
• What are the functions of House Talk, Scandal, Bitching, and Chatting?

  • House Talk: Exchange of information related to female roles
  • Scandal: Judging behavior, especially of women
  • Bitching: Expressing anger about restricted roles
  • Chatting: Intimate self-disclosure among women
• What does Coates say about tag questions?

  They demonstrate sensitivity to interaction norms
• What are lexical items used by women to express epistemic modality?

  Words like perhaps, I think, and probably
• What did Peter Trudgill study in the 1970s?

  Language differences between men and women
• What did Trudgill find about women's speech sounds?

  Women are more likely to use prestige pronunciation
• What is the significance of hypercorrectness in women's speech?

  It reflects their aim for higher prestige
• What are the six contrasts in Tannen's representation of male and female language use?

  1. Status vs. support
  2. Independence vs. intimacy
  3. Advice vs. understanding
  4. Information vs. feelings
  5. Orders vs. proposals
  6. Conflict vs. compromise
• How do men and women view conversation differently according to Tannen?

  Men see it as competitive; women seek support
• What does Dale Spender argue about language?

  It sustains structures that uphold male power
• What challenge does Spender identify in changing patriarchal language structures?

  Tools for change are part of the patriarchal order
• What did Geoffrey Beattie find about interruptions in conversation?

  Men and women interrupt with similar frequency
• What does Pamela Fishman argue about conversation failures between sexes?

  They result from men's responses, not women's talk
• How does Fishman view women's use of questions?

  As a powerful interaction tool, not insecurity
• What does Christine Christie analyze in her research?

  Gender differences in UK parliamentary speaking
• What assumptions did Robin Lakoff make about women's language?

  Women hedge, use polite forms, and tag questions
• What are some characteristics of women's language according to Lakoff?

  • Use hedges (e.g., "sort of")
  • Employ polite forms (e.g., "Would you mind...")
  • Use tag questions (e.g., "You're going to dinner, aren't you?")
  • Speak in italics (intonational emphasis)
  • Use empty adjectives (e.g., "lovely")
  • Use hypercorrect grammar
  • Use direct quotation
  • Have a special lexicon
  • Use question intonation in statements
  • Use "wh-" imperatives
  • Speak less frequently
  • Overuse qualifiers
  • Apologize more
  • Use modal constructions
  • Avoid coarse language
  • Use indirect commands
  • Use more intensifiers
  • Lack a sense of humor
• What do Keith and Shuttleworth suggest about women's speech?

  Women talk more and are more polite
• What do Keith and Shuttleworth suggest about men's speech?

  Men swear more and dominate conversations
• What are some objective descriptions and popular ideas about language according to Keith and Shuttleworth?

  Objective descriptions:

  • Ask questions
  • Give commands

  
  

  Popular ideas:

  • Women nag
  • Men speak with more authority