3.2.6 Atypical Gender Development

• Gender dysphoria = the symptom of confusion/anxiety/depression that is felt due to feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with their own. It can include a desire to change primary or secondary sex characteristics.
• GID = Gender Identity Disorder
• Biological Explanation: Genetics

  • Heylens et al (2012) compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID. 
  • 9 (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for GID compared to none of the DZs.
  • This would indicate a role for genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria.
• Biological Explanation: Brain Sex Theory

  • Based on the idea that some parts of the brain are sexually dimorphic – different in males & females. 
  • BSTc = fully developed by five years and influences sexual behaviour. (Larger in males than females)
• Research Support for Brain Sex Theory

  • Zhou et al (1995) and Kruijver et al (2000)
  • Found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of MtF transsexuals showed a similar pattern to that in heterosexual women. 
  • The neurons in a female-male transsexual was in the same range as for heterosexual males.
• Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis central subdivision = (BSTc)
• Social Explanation: Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Extreme separation anxiety before gender identity established. 
  • Fantasies of a symbiotic fusion with mother to reduce anxiety. 
  • Boy becomes the mother so adopts a woman’s gender identity.
• Research Support for Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Stoller (1975)
  • In interviews, GD biological males displayed overly close mother-son relationships.
  • Propose that this would lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long-term.
• Social Explanation: Social Constructionism

  • Gender identity is an invention (construction) of a society.
  • GD arises because society forces a binary choice on people and behave accordingly.
  • GD is not a pathological condition but a social one.
• Research Support for Social Constructionism

  • McClintock (2015)
  • Showed that the Sambia people of New Guinea recognise three genders – females, males and kwolu-aatmwol (females-then-males).
  • Changed since the culture had contact with the West & kwolu-aatmwol are now judged as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria.