Attachment paper 1

• CARE - INFANT INTERACTIONS

  Alert Phrases- babies have this in which they signal ( eye contact that they are ready for interaction. Research shows that mothers typically pick up and respond to their babies alertness around 2/3 of the time ( Eidelman 2007) although this varies according to the skill of mother and external factors.Reciprocity- description of how 2 people interact care giver interaction is reciprocal in that both baby and care giver responds to each otherInteractional synchrony- care giver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of the others and do this in a synchronised wayActive involvement- both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions and they appear to take turns in doing so. Brazelton (1975) described this interaction as a dance because it's just like a couple's dance where each partner responds to each other's moves.
• IMPORTANT OF ATTACHMENT

  Believed in interactional synchrony is important for development of caregiver and infant attachment. Russel Isabela (1989) observed at 30 months and babies together and assessed the quality of mother baby attachment, they found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother baby attachment eg emotional intensity of relationship.
• INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY AND SYNCHRONY BEGINS

  Interactional synchrony- two people said to be synchronised when they carry out the same action simultaneously so therefore it can be described as the temporal co-ordination of micro- level social behaviour. (Fadman 2007) takes place where caregiver and baby interact in such a way that their actions and emotions mirror each other.Synchrony begins- Meltzoff and Moore (1977) observed the beginning of interactional synchrony in babies as growing as 2 weeks old. An adult displayed one or 3 facial expressions. The baby's response was filmed and labelled by independent observers. Babies' expressions and gestures were more. likely to mirror those of adults more than would predict. Eg there was a significant association. Importance of attachment- believed that interactional synchrony is important for development of caregiver and infant attachment. Rusell Isabela (1989) observed at 30 months and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony and researchers also assessed quality of mother- baby attachment. They found high levels of synchrony were associated with better mother-baby attachment.
• One strength of Caregiver interactions

  Interactions were usually filmed in the lab, means that other activity that only disturb baby can be controlled. Also using filming means that observations can be recorded and analysed later. Therefore, it's unlikely that researchers will miss seeing key behaviours. Furthermore, having filmed interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish the inter- reliability of observations. Finally, babies don't know their observed so their behaviour doesn't change in response to observation, therefore the data collected in such research should have good reliability and validity.
• Another strength

  There is evidence that from other lines of research to suggest that any interactions are important. Isabela (1989) found that achievement of interactional synchrony predicted the development of good quality. Means that on the same balance, caregiver infant interaction is probably important in development.
• One limitation

  Difficulty observing babies, it's hard to interpret babies' behaviours. The movements being observed are just small hand movements and subtle changes in expression. It's difficult to be sure that a baby is smiling or passing wind. We can't know such if a hand twitch was random or triggered by something a caregiver has done. Means that we cannot be certain that the behaviours seen in caregiver infant interactions have a special meaning.
• Another limitation

  Developmental importance- observing behaviour does not tell us its developmental importance. Feldman (2012) points out the ideas like synchrony simply gives names to patterns of observable caregiver and baby behaviours. These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed but they still may not be particularly useful in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of these behaviours. This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity and synchrony are important for child's development
• Stages of attachment - infant hevaiours are linkd to specifc ages and all babies all go through them in social order.


  Stage 1 - Asocial stage: in baby's few weeks of life, it's observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is fairly similar- hence the term 'asocial'. Shaffer and Emerson didn't believe it's entirely asocial because even at that stage babies show signs that they prefer to be with other people. Babies tend to show preference for the company for familiar people and more easily comforted by them. At this stage, baby is forming bonds with certain people and these form the basis of later attachment.Stage 2 - Indsicriminate attachment: from 2-7 months, babies start to display more obvious and observable social behaviours. Now show clear preference for being with other people than inanimate objects. But at this stage, babies usually accept cuddles and comfort for any person- indiscriminate. They don't show separation anxiety. When care givers leave their presence, stranger anxiety with unfamilar people.
• Stage 3 and 4

  Stage 3- specific attachment- around 7 months, majority of babies start display classic signs of attachment towards one particular person. These signs include anxiety towards strangers especialy when AF is absent and separation anxiety. Specific attachment formed- primary figure isn't necessarily the person they spend more time with but one that responds to their signals and offers most interaction with them most likely the mother.Stage 4: multiple attachments- soon after showing stranger/ separation anxiety towards one person they usually extend their behaviour to multiple attachments with people they spend more time with, secondary relationships, Schaffer and Emerson observed that 29% of kids formed secondary attachments within a month of forming primary attachment. Age one majority will have developed multiple attachments.
• Schaffer and Emerson's research


  1964 based on stage theory on observational study of formation of an early infant- adult attachments. Procedure: involved 60 babies 31 boys and 29 girls from Glasgow and majority from skilled working-class families. Researchers visited mothers homes for the last year at 18 months. Researchers asked the mothers the kind of protests their babies showed in 7-day separation e.g. adult leaving the room designed to measure babies' attachment Findings- they both identified 4 distinct stages in the development of infant attachment behaviour, making up the stage theory.
• Limitations of Schaffer and Emerson's attachment


  Issues asking motherss to be observers they ar unlikely to be objective observers, they might be biased in terms of what they're noticed when their baby was showing signs of anxiety, they may have misremembered it. Means that even if babies bheaved naturally their behaviour may have not been accurately recorded Another limitation- the validity of the measure they sued to assess attachment in the asocial stage. Young babies have poor co- ordination and are family immobile if babies <2 months felt anxiety in everday situations, they may show this in quite hard-to-observe ways, difficult for mothes to obsereve and report in this age group, means babies may be quite social but because of forward methods, they appear to be asocial.
• Strengths of Schaffer and Emerson

  Their research have good external validity. Most observations were made by during ordinary activities and reported to the researchers to record observations which might have distracted babies, made them anxious, means it's highly likely that the ppts behaved naturally while its being observed.Another strength- Their stages have practical application in day care when babies are cared for outside their home by non family adult. In asocial and indiscriminate stages of daycare is likely to be straight forward as baby can be comforted by any skilled adult. However tells us that day care especially with start of an unfamiliar adult may be problematic during specifc attachment, means parents use of care can be planned using their stages.
• The role of the father - attachment to fathers

  • Available evidence suggests fathers less likely to become babies' first attachment figure than mothers.
  • e.g. Research by Schaffer, Emerson- found majority babies first became attached to mothers at 7 months Ish, 3% -cases father was first sole of attachment, 27%- father was joint first object attachment with mother
  • but appears most fathers go on to become important attachment figures as 75% babies studied by Schaffer formed attachment with father by 18 months, was determined by fact as babies protested when father walked away- sign of attachment.
• Distinctive role of fathers

  Grossman 2002- carried longitudinal study where babies' attachments were studied until they were into teens.

  Researchers looked both at parents behaviour and its relationship to the quality of their baby's later attachments in adolescence. suggests that attachment to father's is less important than attachment of mothers

  However, Grossman found that quality of father's play with babies was related to quality of adolescent attachments- suggests fathers have different role to mothers- one to do with play and stimulation less to do with emotional development
• Fathers can serve as primary attachment figures.
• The role of a father as a primary attachment figure has special emotional significance.
• The relationship between a baby and its primary attachment figure forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships.
• Evidence suggests that fathers are able to adopt an emotional role more typically associated with a mother.
• Tiffany Field filmed a 4-month-old baby in interaction with parents, fathers, and mothers.
• Smiling and imitating are part of the process of attachment formation, suggesting that fathers have the potential to be more emotion-focused primary attachment figures.
• Responsiveness is required for a close emotional attachment, and fathers provide this responsiveness.
• Evaluation - One strength

  Real world application- can be used to offer advice to parents

  Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home becaquse of stereotypical views of mothers, fathers role, and fathers may be pressured to focus on work rather than parenting.

  Hetrosexual parents can be informed that not having a fathers are quite capable of becoming PAF.

  Also lesbian, single mother families can be informed that not having father around does not affect child's development.

  Means parental axniety about roles oif fathers can be reduced
• Another strength


  There may conflicting evidence as it could be that fathers typically take on distinctive roles in two parent heteroesxual families but their parents in singlemother, lesbian families simplyadpat to accomodate the role played by fathers

  Means that the question of a distinctive role of fathers is clear after all.

  When present fathers tend to adopt distincitive role but families can adapt not having father.
• One limitation- conflicting evidence


  Grosmann's studies suggested fathers as SAF have important and distinct role in children's development- play,stimulation

  But if fathers have distinctive and important role we would expect that children growing up in single mother, lesbian families would turn out some way different from those with 'normal' families

  In some studies, consistently show that these children don't develop differently from kids in two parent hetrosexual family. Means that the question as to whether fathers have distinctive role remains unanswered
• Another limitation- confusion over research questions


  What is the role of the father question is more complicated than it sounds. Some researchers attempting to answer this question actually wanted to understand role of fathers as SAF but others are more concerned with fathers as PAF.

  The former have tended to see fathers as behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role

  The latter found that fathers can take on maternal role.

  Makes it difficult to offer simple answer as top the role of father- really depends what specific role is being discussed
• Imprinting was first observed by Lorenz when he was a child.
• The procedure for imprinting involves setting up an experiment where half of a clutch of goose eggs are hatched with the mother goose in a neutral environment, and the other half are hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they see is Lorenz.
• In the experiment, the incubator group followed Lorenz, while the control group followed the mother, even when they were mixed together.
• Imprinting is a phenomenon where bird species, from birth, attach to follow the first moving object they see.
• Lorenz identified a critical period for imprinting, as it's essential for the chicks to attach themselves to the mother during this time.
• If the critical period for imprinting doesn't occur within a certain time, it's found that chicks don't attach themselves to the mother.
• Sexual imprinting

  Lorenz investigated relationship between imprinting and adult mat preferences, observed that birds had imprinted on human would often later display courtship behaviour towards giant tortises

  Concluded that this is meant the peacock had undergone sexual imprinting
• Harlow's research


  Observed newborns kept alone in bare cage often died but that they usually survived

  Procedure- 1958- tested idea that soft object serves some of functions of a mother, in one experiment he reared 16 baby monkeys with two wired mothers. In one condition milk was dispensed by plain wire mother whereas in second condition milk was dispensed by cloth covered mother.

  Findings- baby monkeys cuddled cloth covered mother rather than plain wire, - showed contact comfort was more importance to monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour
• Maternally deprived monkeys as adults

  Monkeys reared with plain wire mothers only were the most dysfunctional but even those reared with cloth covered mother didn't develop normal social behaviour - were more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys and bred less often than typical ones- unskilled at mating

  When they became mothers, some deprived monkeys neglected their young, attacked them and killed them
• Critical period for normal development


  Mother had to be introduced to young monkey within 90 days for an attachment to form, after this time, attachment was impossible and the damage done by early deprivation became irreversible
• Evaluation of Lorenz- One strength

  Research support- the existence of support for the concept of imprinting. A study by Regolin 1995- supports his idea of imprinting, chicks were exposed to simple shape combinations that moved, range of them were then moved in front of them and followed the original one more closely.

  This supports the view that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object present in critical window of development as predicted by Lorenz
• One limitation of Lorenz

  Generalisability to humans from birds.

  The mammalian attachment system is quite different and more complex than that in birds.

  E.g. in mammals attachment is a two way process so it is not just the young who became attached to mothers but also the mammalian mothers who show an emotional attachment to their young.

  Means that it's probably not appropriate to generalise Lorenz's ideas to humans
• Evaluation of Harlow- One strength


  Real world value- it has helped social workers and clinical psychologists understand that a lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes.

  We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoo and breeding programmes in the wild

  Means that the value of Harlow's research isn't just theoretical but also practical
• One limitation of Harlow- Generalisability to humans

  Rhesus monkeys are much more similar to humans than Lorenz's birds and all mammals share some common attachment behaviours. However, human brain and human behaviour is still more complex than that of monkeys.

  Means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow's findings to humans
• Explanations of attachment- Bowlby's attachment theory


  Monotropy- he placed great emphasis on child's attachment to one particular care giver. Believed attachment to one particular care giver is so different to others- 'mother' and didn't need to be biological/ PAF. two principles he put forward were:

  The law of continuity- the more constant and predictable a child's care the better the quality of attachment

  The law of accumulated separation- the effects of every separation from the mother add up 'and the safest dose is therefore a zero dose' - 1975