biological molecules

• Monomers are the individual building blocks of larger molecules known as polymers.
• Carbohydrates have diverse functions, including energy storage and structural support.
• In biological systems, monomers are typically small organic molecules.
• Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units (monomers) covalently bonded together.
• The process of joining monomers to form a polymer is called polymerization.
• Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient that includes monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit.
• Cellulose provides rigidity and structure to plant cell walls.
• Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-glucose units that provides structural support in plant cell walls.
• Starch and glycogen act as energy storage molecules in plants and animals respectively.
• Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in plants.
• Glycogen serves as the storage form of glucose in animals, mainly in the liver and muscles.
• Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of α-glucose units.
• Humans lack the enzyme to digest cellulose.
• Examples of monosaccharides include Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose.
• Disaccharides are formed by a condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis) between two monosaccharides.
• Examples of disaccharides include Sucrose (table sugar), Lactose (found in milk), and Maltose (product of starch digestion).
• Polysaccharides are a type of carbohydrate that includes starch.
• Starch is a polymer of α-glucose units.
• Triglycerides are composed of glycerol and three fatty acids and function as energy storage, insulation, and protection.
• Saturated fats have single bonds; unsaturated fats have double bonds.
• Phospholipids are composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group and are major components of cell membranes.
• Amphipathic refers to the hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails of phospholipids.
• Steroids are structurally different, with a characteristic four-ring structure, and examples include cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
• Lipids serve as long-term energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, thermal insulation, cushioning of organs, signaling molecules, and testing can be done through the Emulsion Test.
• Water has unique properties such as high specific heat capacity, cohesion and adhesion, solvent properties, surface tension, and biological importance in temperature regulation, evaporative cooling, transport medium, chemical reactions, inorganic ions, and hydrogen carbonate and carbonate.
• Amino acids consist of a central carbon atom (alpha carbon), an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain (R group).
• R groups determine the unique properties of each amino acid, such as polar, nonpolar, acidic, basic.
• Peptide bonds are formed by condensation reactions between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.
• Primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain that determines the sequence of amino acids.
• Secondary structure results from hydrogen bonding between amino acids, with α-helix being a coiled structure and β-pleated sheet being a folded sheet-like structure.
• Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional folding of a polypeptide, with interactions including hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and ionic bonds.
• Quaternary structure is a structure formed by the association of two or more polypeptide chains (subunits), not all proteins have quaternary structures.
• Enzymes act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions and have specificity determined by the active site.
• Structural proteins provide support and strength to cells and tissues, examples include collagen and keratin.
• Transport proteins facilitate the movement of substances across membranes, examples include hemoglobin and channel proteins.
• Hormones act as chemical messengers to regulate physiological processes, examples include insulin and adrenaline.
• Antibodies function in the immune system to recognize and neutralize pathogens.
• Receptor proteins bind to specific molecules and transmit signals to the cell.
• Denaturation is the loss of the protein's structure and function due to factors like heat or extreme pH, it does not involve breaking peptide bonds.