Gender bias

• What does the term "universality" refer to in psychology?

  Belief that all humans are alike
• What is the aim of developing universal theories in psychology?

  To apply to all people, including gender differences
• What is gender bias?

  Treating men and women differently based on stereotypes
• How can gender bias affect the value of women?

  It can either heighten or devalue their worth
• What is alpha bias in psychological research?

  Exaggerating or overestimating differences between genders

  
• How are differences presented in alpha bias?

  As fixed and inevitable
• What does Freud's theory suggest about girls' moral development?

  Girls have a weaker superego than boys
• What is the belief that all humans are alike, so what is true for one person is true for everyone?

  Universality
• What is the aim of developing theories that apply to all people, and that could include any real differences or similarities between the genders?

  To develop theories that apply to all people
• What is treating or representing men and women differently based on stereotypes, rather than actual differences?

  Gender Bias
• What is the purpose of gender bias, either to heighten the value of women or to devalue them?

  To heighten the value of women or to devalue them
• What is psychological research that overestimates or exaggerates differences between males and females, and presents these differences as fixed and inevitable?

  Alpha Bias

  
• How does Alpha Bias sometimes heighten the value of women, and how is it more likely to devalue females in relation to males?

  Alpha Bias occasionally heightens the value of women, but is more likely to devalue females in relation to males
• What is research that ignores or underestimates gender differences, where female participants are not included but it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes?

  Beta Bias
• What is the term for research that takes a male-centred view of the world, where male views are seen as "normal" and anything that deviates is judged as abnormal?

  Androcentrism
• How can androcentrism lead to female behavior being misunderstood and even pathologized, where women's feelings like anger are seen as a medical issue caused by hormones, unlike men's anger?


  Androcentrism can lead to female behavior being misunderstood and pathologized, where women's feelings are seen as a medical issue caused by hormones, unlike men's anger
• How do the Milgram and Hofling studies represent a beta bias, where conclusions were drawn about males and females despite only using male or female participants?

  The Milgram and Hofling studies represent a beta bias by minimizing gender differences, as they only used male or female participants but drew conclusions about both genders

  
• What is a limitation of gender differences often being presented as fixed and enduring, when research has found no such biological differences in brain structure or processing?

  Gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring, when research has found no such biological differences in brain structure or processing
• What is a counterpoint to the limitation that gender differences should not be studied, where research has found some biological differences in brain connectivity that may relate to gender differences in abilities like multitasking?

  Research has found some biological differences in brain connectivity that may relate to gender differences in abilities like multitasking, suggesting that gender differences should not be completely avoided in research
• What is a limitation of gender bias in the research process, where women are underrepresented in university departments and male researchers may have expectations that disadvantage female participants?

  Gender bias in the research process, where women are underrepresented and male researchers may have expectations that disadvantage female participants, can produce findings that are gender-biased
• What is a further limitation where research challenging gender biases may not be published as often, as it is funded less and published in less prestigious journals?

  Research challenging gender biases may not be published as often, as it is funded less and published in less prestigious journals
• What are the key differences between alpha bias and beta bias?

  • Alpha bias exaggerates differences between males and females
  • Beta bias minimizes differences between males and females

  
• How can androcentrism affect psychological research?

  • Androcentrism leads to a male-centered view where male behavior is seen as the "norm"
  • This can result in either alpha bias (exaggerating gender differences) or beta bias (ignoring gender differences)
  • It can lead to female behavior being misunderstood or pathologized

  
• What are some limitations of gender bias in psychological research?

  • Gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring, when research shows they may be socially constructed
  • Gender bias in the research process, such as underrepresentation of women, can produce findings that are gender-biased
  • Research challenging gender biases may not be published as often or taken as seriously