Psychology

• Psychophysics explores how the mind perceives the physical world and how different stimuli are detected and interpreted.
• Cognition is our thoughts, perspectives, and expectations about the world around us.
• latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expresses in an outermost response. ( unconscious learning)
• cognitive maps are mental representations of the world that help us to understand our environment
• cognitive maps proposes that the brain builds unified representation of the spatial environment to support memory and guide future action
• observational learning is learning by watching others and imitating their behaviour
• mirror neurons are neurons that fire when an individual observes an action and when they perform the same action
• associative learning is learning through association between two stimuli, not through direct reinforcement
• natural response an unconditioned response at is natural/automatic response to a stimulus that does not require prior learning
• unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that is not learned to be associated with a response
• operant conditioning is a type of learning in which a response is strengthened or weakened by the consequences of that response
• classical conditioning is the process of learning to associate a stimulus with a response
• conditioned response is a response to a stimulus that has been learned and is not naturally occuring
• Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber that is used to study the behavior of animals.
• shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour towards a desired goal ( desired behaviour)
• positive reinforcement is when a behaviour is rewarded with a positive outcome
• negative reinforcement is any stimulus that, when removed after a response strengthens the response
• primary reinforcer: reinforcer that is naturally occurring and not learned ( such a one that satisfies biological needs )
• conditioned reinforcers are a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
• reinforcement schedule is a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
• extinction is reinforcrcing a response that has been eliminated from the environment
• Behavioural psychology questions : how do we learn, how does learning shape our behaviour, how can we influence or control behaviour
• • Regression: a return to a former or less developed state


  Ex : driver stuck in traffic gets angry and throws a tantrum even though they never act that way
• reaction formation : a person tries to change their behaviour to avoid being punished ( switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites


  ex: a man who feels insecure about his masculinity might act overly aggressive
• projection : disguising ones own threatening impulses by attributing them to others


  ex : a cheating spouse who suspects their partner is being unfaithful
• Rationalization : offering self justifying explanations in place of the real , more threatening unconscious reasons for ones actions


  ex: a student who is rejected from her dream university may explain she’s happy to attend a less competitive and more welcoming school.
• displacement : shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person


  Ex : a person angry at their boss may take out their anger on a family member
• Denial : Refusing to acknowledge or accept something as true or real.


  ex: no my boyfriends isn’t cheating on me with her, they’re just friends
• collective unconscious: the shared unconscious of all humans, including all cultures
• Psychodynamic theory : the study of forces that influence human behaviours and shape the human experience
• self actualization is the process of becoming one's true self, the realization of one's potential
• analytical psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the unconscious mind


  focuses on symbolism and the human psyche
• archetypes : a basic pattern or model of behaviour that is shared by all members of a group


  images , objects or themes connected to a concept

  ex: anything that could represent failure
• ego : conscious part of personality responsible for mediating between id and superego
• superego : conscience, moral values, sense of right and wrong
• id : unconscious part of personality that contains instinctual drives and desires
• Client centered therapy : a form of talk therapy that helps people understand themselves through guided discussions about themselves
• Drive reduction theory: The theory that drives are reduced by the presence of a goal and the presence of a goal is reduced by the presence of a drive
• Stigma : a negative view on something or someone, especially because of their race, religion, or sexual orientation


  usually due to prevailing social norms or personal experience
• Social learning theory : A theory which suggests we can learn from observing others behaviour