A level biology topics 1-4

• Monomers are smaller units which can create larger molecules.
• Polymers are made from lots of monomers which are bonded together.
• Examples of monomers include glucose, amino acids, and nucleotides.
• Examples of polymers include glucose, cellulose, and glycogen.
• To create polymers, it is a condensation reaction.
• The first Mark in a condensation reaction is joining two molecules together, creating a chemical bond, and removing water.
• The second Mark in a condensation reaction is creating a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of water.
• Carbohydrates are the first biological molecules that need to be known.
• Carbohydrates can be classified into three levels of size: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
• Isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic refer to the concentration of a solution, with isotonic being when the water potential is the same in the solution and the cell, hypotonic being when the water potential of the solution is more positive than the cell, and hypertonic being when the water potential of the solution is more negative than the cell.
• Facilitated diffusion is a passive process where molecules move through protein channels, and it is still selective as the channels only open in the presence of certain ions when they bind to the protein carrier.
• Simple diffusion is the net movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, and this process does not require any ATP.
• Transport is the movement of substances from a lower concentration to a higher concentration, and this requires metabolic energy and a carrier protein.
• The membrane is partially permeable to lipid-soluble substances and very small molecules, but not to water-soluble or polar substances and large molecules.
• Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential across a partially permeable membrane, and the water potential is the pressure created by water molecules, measured in kilopascals, and represented by the symbol 𝑝.
• Co-transport is a type of transport where a molecule is transported with another substance, such as glucose with sodium ions, and it is required when there is a higher concentration of the molecule in the Lumen compared to the epithelial cell.
• Small organelles in a cell are not visible with an optical microscope, but can be seen with an electron microscope due to its higher resolving power.
• The optical microscope uses a beam of light which is condensed to create the image, while the electron microscope uses a beam of electrons which is condensed to create the image.
• Viruses are acellular and non-living, with a structure consisting of genetic material, capsid, and attachment proteins.
• The resolution of an optical microscope is determined by the wavelength of light, while the resolution of an electron microscope is determined by the wavelength of the beam of electrons.
• The image size on an optical microscope is equal to the actual size times magnification, while the actual size or the magnification can be calculated using the formula I am.
• The transmission electron microscope allows for the study of extremely thin specimens, while the scanning electron microscope creates 3D images.
• The magnification of an optical microscope is lower than that of an electron microscope, and color images can be produced with the optical microscope but not with the electron microscope.
• There are three main types of microscopes: Optical microscopes, electron microscopes, and scanning electron microscopes.
• Advances in microscopy, cell fractionation, and Ultra centrifugation have enabled the study of internal structures or organelles.
• Viruses replicate inside of host cells, making it difficult to destroy them as you would need to destroy the host cell to be able to destroy the virus.
• Examples of polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
• The antibody binds to the engine in the test sample, and the presence of color indicates the presence of the antigen in the test sample and the intensity of the color indicates the quantity presence.
• Unbound test sample is removed and an antibody complementary in shape to the engine is added.
• Monoclonal antibodies are used in cancer research and detection due to their ability to bind specifically to certain antigens.
• Small organisms like amoeba have very large surface areas compared to their volume and do not need additional special adaptations to meet their needs in terms of transport across their surface.
• Larger organisms because the surface area is so much smaller compared to the volume, need additional adaptations for mass transport or transport across cells.
• Surface area to volume ratio is a concept in biology that relates to how different cells or organs have adaptations to maximize gas exchange and other types of transports across surfaces.
• The key adaptations for gas exchange are the Villi and the microvilli, which are found in the small intestines to maximize the absorption of digested food.
• Alveoli and bronchioles are involved in gas exchange in mammals, while alveoli and bronchioles are for terrestrial insects.
• The creation of monoclonal antibodies requires the use of animals such as mice, which can lead to ethical debates.
• Gill filaments and lamelli are the gas exchange adaptation surface for fish, and plants exchange gases through this thermometer on the leaves.
• The water enters here and then goes over the gills on both sides of the head, where there are four layers of gills with the Gill filaments and the Gill lamelli.