9. Demographic changes and the family

• What is demography?

  The study of the human population
• What factors does demography study regarding population?

  Fertility and mortality effects on population
• What is the key demographic change regarding birth rate?

  Birth rate is declining
• What is the fertility rate?

  The average number of live births per woman
• What was the fertility rate in the UK in 1970?

  2.4 per woman
• What was the fertility rate in the UK in 2020?

  1.56 per woman
• What is the key demographic change regarding family size?

  Family size is declining
• What was the average number of children per woman in 1871?

  5.5 children
• What was the average number of births per woman in 2020?

  1.56 births
• What are the reasons for trends in birth rate and family size?

  1. Changing social attitudes to children
  2. Popularity of postmodern ideas
  3. Changing role of women
• What does the term 'childless' to 'childfree' signify?

  A shift in perception of having no children
• How did middle-class families view smaller families from 1870 onwards?

  As a way to improve living standards
• What became the social norm by the mid-20th century regarding family size?

  Small families of up to 3 children
• How is 'childlessness' viewed in the past compared to now?

  Once seen as unfortunate, now as a choice
• What does 'child-centeredness' refer to?

  Prioritizing children's well-being over partners
• What has increased the time and costs involved in raising children?

  Higher living standards and expectations
• What was the cost of raising a child from birth to 21 in 2013?

  £230,000
• How much do parents spend on average yearly for unnecessary items due to children's pestering?

  £460 a year
• How has the perception of children changed from the 19th century to now?

  From economic assets to financial burdens
• What legislation has affected children's ability to work?

  Legislation banning child labor
• What does individualisation refer to in postmodern ideas?

  Seeking lifestyles that fulfill individual needs
• What is 'confluent love' according to Giddens?

  Temporary relationships based on emotional investment
• What does reflexivity mean in the context of relationships?

  Constantly questioning personal life satisfaction
• How does risk affect people's decisions about having children?

  People delay or avoid having children
• What did Sharpe's 1970s study reveal about girls' priorities?

  Priorities were love, marriage, and children
• What did Sharpe's 1990s study reveal about girls' priorities?

  More focus on education and financial independence
• How has media representation influenced women's aspirations?

  Portrayed women as career-oriented and independent
• What does Sommerville argue about women's choices in relationships?

  Women have more freedom to escape unsatisfactory relationships
• What does Sommerville suggest the government should do for working parents?

  Provide more support
• What did the Equal Pay Act (1970) ensure?

  Equal pay for equal work regardless of gender
• What did the Sex Discrimination Act (1975) prohibit?

  Denying jobs based on gender
• What percentage of women aged 16-64 were employed in 2018?

  Over 70%
• What was the average age of marriage in 1972?

  27.5 years
• What was the average age of marriage in 2017?

  38.4 years
• What has changed regarding social pressure to marry?

  Less pressure to marry for relationships
• How do postmodern ideas affect marriage views?

  Encourage alternatives to traditional marriage
• What does reflexivity lead individuals to do in relationships?

  Question their satisfaction in relationships
• How does risk influence decisions about childbearing?

  People delay or avoid having children
• What did Sharpe's studies reveal about women's aspirations over time?

  Shift from family to career and independence
• What does Sommerville argue about women's roles in families?

  Women have more freedom and choices now