P3

• Cross-cultural experiments involve manipulating IV in a controlled setting to observe the effects on DV across different cultural groups. This method allows researchers to test causal relationships and examine how cultural factors influence psychological processes. 
• Structured interviews involve asking participants a predetermined set of questions in a standardized manner. These questions are typically designed to gather specific information about the participants' experiences, attitudes, or behaviors. 
• Observational research involves systematically watching and recording behaviors, events, or interactions within a specific cultural context.
• Researchers may engage in participant observation, where they immerse themselves in the culture, or non-participant observation, where they remain external observers.
• Observational research generates qualitative data, allows cultural immersion (firsthand perspective) and provide rich contextual understanding not apparent through other methods.
• An example of observational research is observing parent-child interactions in different cultural communities to understand variations in parenting practices and communication styles.
• Cross-cultural comparative studies involve comparing psychological phenomena across different cultures.
• These studies aim to identify similarities and differences in behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes to draw conclusions about the influence of culture on psychological processes.
• Cross-cultural comparative studies involve comparative analysis, large-scale comparisons as data is collected on a large scale from diverse cultural groups, and so allowing generalizability.
• An example of a cross-cultural comparative study is investigating the impact of cultural values on stress perception and coping mechanisms by collecting data from participants in multiple countries and analyzing cultural variations in responses.
• Bystander effect is a social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a person in need when others are present. It's about inaction in the face of an emergency. The more people present, the less likely any one person is to take action.
• The factors that affect the bystander effect include Diffusion of responsibility, pluaristic ignorance, social influence, and ambiguity of situation
• Kitty Genovese is the case that brought the Bystander Effect to public attention, where she was brutally attacked and killed in 1964 in NYC, although numerous neighbors reportedly witnessed the event, yet did not intervene or call for help. 
• Diffusion of responsibility: People feel less responsible to take action when others are present as they believe that someone else will take responsibility for helping, leading to a diffusion of responsibility. As a result, people may feel less personally accountable to intervene.
• Social influence: Conforming to the behavior of others. If everyone is hesitating to help, individuals may follow the crowd and choose not to intervene.
• Pluralistic ignorance: Assuming others know better, and no one takes action.This occurs when people look to others for cues on how to behave, and if everyone appears calm or unresponsive, individuals may interpret the situation as less serious than it actually is.
• Evaluation apprehension: Individuals may hesitate to act because they fear being judged or evaluated by others in the group. This concern about how one's actions will be perceived can hinder intervention
• Ambiguity of the situation: Unclear signals or hesitation can lead to inaction. E.g., Not helping because it's unclear if help is really needed.