DNA-RNA-Protein, cell tissue dynamics

• What does the central dogma describe?

  The flow of genetic information in cells
• How is genetic information transferred from DNA to proteins?

  DNA is transcribed into RNA, then translated into proteins
• Where is genetic material found in a cell?

  In the nucleus, mitochondria, and cytoplasm
• What are the four essential roles of genetic material?

  Carry information, self-replicate, change, govern phenotype
• What was previously thought to be the only genetic material?

  Protein, RNA, and DNA
• What does genomic study encompass?

  All human genes and biological information
• What is the function of DNA in living organisms?

  Contains instructions for development, survival, reproduction
• What are the two states of chromatin?

  Euchromatin and heterochromatin
• What is the role of the insulin gene in pancreatic beta cells?

  Actively transcribed to produce insulin
• What happens to the OCT4 gene in differentiated cells?

  It becomes tightly packed into heterochromatin
• What are proteins made of?

  Polymers of amino acids
• How does the sequence of amino acids affect proteins?

  It specifies protein shape and function
• What is the process of transcription?

  Creation of messenger RNA from DNA
• What is the structure of a gene composed of?

  Exons and introns
• What is RNA splicing?

  Removal of introns from mRNA
• What is alternative splicing?

  One gene can produce different protein versions
• What role do introns play in gene regulation?

  They contain "volume knobs" for gene control
• What is the purpose of quality control in RNA processing?

  Ensure only properly processed messages are made
• What is translation in genetics?

  Transmission of information from mRNA to protein
• What is the role of tRNA in translation?

  Brings specific amino acids to ribosomes
• What is the complement of adenine (A) in RNA?

  Uracil (U)
• What happens when there is a mutation in genes?

  It can lead to genetic disorders
• What is homeostasis?

  The body's ability to maintain internal balance
• What defines cell injury?

  Stresses from internal and external changes
• How do cells control their growth and differentiation?

  By activating and deactivating certain genes
• What can biological damage lead to?

  Long-term consequences for tissue function
• What is hyperplasia?

  Increase in cell number
• What is atrophy?

  Decrease in cell size and/or number
• What is dysplasia?

  Abnormal growth with loss of organization
• What is neoplasia?

  Uncontrolled growth of cells outside control
• What distinguishes benign from malignant cells?

  Benign cells do not spread; malignant do
• What is a hallmark of cancer related to growth signaling?

  Cancer cells produce their own growth signals
• What are tumor suppressor genes?

  Proteins that restrain cell growth
• What is the significance of telomerase in cancer cells?

  It keeps telomeres long for endless division
• Why do tumors need angiogenesis?

  To grow, they need a blood supply
• What is the impact of cancer cells resisting cell death?

  They continue to grow despite damage
• What makes epithelial cells a primary source of cancer?

  They have rapid turnover and mutation risk
• What is renal cell carcinoma?

  Most common type of kidney cancer
• What are the risk factors for renal cell carcinoma?

  Smoking, obesity, hypertension, family history
• What is the peak incidence age for renal cell carcinoma?

  60-70 years of age