UNIT 6 FULL

• Learning is defined as a complex process which brings about an enduring change in behavior as a result of practice.
• Kinds of Learning

  1. Habituation
  2. Associative Learning (Classical Conditioning, Operant or Instrumental Conditioning)
  3. Social Learning
  4. Skill Learning
  5. Verbal Learning
  6. Cognitive Learning
• Habituation is the simplest kind of learning.
• Associative Learning is the next level of learning wherein we form new association between a stimulus and a response (s – r theory).
• Classical Conditioning involves the transfer of response from one stimulus to another stimulus through repeated pairings. This kind of learning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.
• Parameters of Classical Conditioning

  1. Acquisition
  2. Reinforcement
  3. Extinction
  4. Spontaneous Recovery
  5. Generalization
  6. Discrimination
  7. Higher-order Conditioning
• Acquisition is the phase of classical conditioning whereby the stimulus association is learned.
• Reinforcement refers to an event which may enhance or maintain the strength of a response.
• Extinction refers to a decrease in the strength of a conditioned response resulting from repeatedly eliciting the response in the absence of the reinforcement.
• Spontaneous Recovery is a partial recovery in the strength of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest interval.
• Generalization is the tendency of the stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.
• Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It is the process of responding to the variation or differences between stimuli.
• Higher-order Conditioning aids the individual to become flexible with his responses to the environment.
• Operant or Instrumental Conditioning: the learner is allowed to discover how his behavioral response affects the environment and vice-versa. This kind of learning was experimented extensively by B.F. Skinner. This learning involves increasing the probability of similar responses due to the presence of reinforcement.
• Phenomena of Interest in Operant Conditioning

  1. Shaping
  2. Extinction
  3. Stimulus Generalization
  4. Discrimination Learning
  5. Partial Reinforcement
  6. Secondary Reinforcement
• Shaping refers to a series of responses wherein each response leads to the next response.
• Extinction is a progressive weakening of an instrumental learning due to the withdrawal of reinforcement.
• Stimulus Generalization refers to the tendency of a stimulus, which is similar to the one used in training to elicit the same response.
• Discrimination Learning the response made in one stimulus is not made possible to the others.
• Partial Reinforcement the responses made by an individual are reinforced only part of the time.
• Secondary Reinforcement these reinforcers are learned, they refer to a stimulus that has gained a reinforcing property by having been paired with a primary reinforcer.
• Social Learning: Albert Bandura is the most prominent social learning theorist who has engaged in many experiments involving learning by observing which otherwise known as vicarious learning or modeling, because a model is being imitated.
• Four Steps in the Process of Modeling

  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Motoric Reproduction
  4. Reinforcement
• Attention – sensing and perceiving the important aspects of the behavior to be imitated.
• Retention – remembering the behavior either through mental images or language.
• Motoric Reproduction – converting the recalled observation into action.
• Reinforcement – being encouraged and motivated to adopt the behavior.
• Skill Learning: Skill refers to the proficiency and competency in a certain kind of performance. Some forms of skills are verbal, reading and writing.
• Three Stages in Learning a Skill

  1. Cognition
  2. Fixation
  3. Automation
• Verbal Learning involves the use of words either as stimuli or response. Some forms of linguistic abilities such as speaking, reading writing and reciting are involved in verbal learning.
• Kinds of Verbal Learning

  1. Serial-anticipation learning
  2. Free recall learning
  3. Paired-associate learning
• Cognitive Learning - A process that we cannot observe. This involves cognitive learning like perceiving of current happenings, recalling previous experiences, thinking, reasoning, evaluating and abstracting. All activities fall under higher mental processes are categorized here. Insightful problem solving, sign learning and concept learning are good examples of cognitive learning.
• Memory – the extent to which original and previous learned information still persists. Memory makes learning possible and without learning there is nothing to remember.
• Learning is employed to build up memories for use in the future while memory is used to store and retrieve this information.
• Methods to Measure Memory or Remembering

  1. Recall
  2. Recognition
  3. Reintegration
  4. Relearning
• Recall is the process of reproducing past learning/experience without any clue.
• Recognition denotes the ability to identify learned items that are familiar.
• Reintegration involves the recollection of past learning/experience with the presence of cues.
• Relearning simply refers to reviewing previous learning, the easiest method.
• Our Memory Usually Works in Four Basic Steps

  1. Perception
  2. Encoding/acquisition
  3. Storage
  4. Retrieval