lithosphere

• stock-all minerals that exist in the lithosphere, including minerals that cane be exploited now will be exploitable in the future and those that can never be exploited
• Resource- all the material that is theoretically available for exploitation This includes deposits which are at present un-economic to be exploited
• Reserve- the proportion of the mineral resources that can be exploited, now economically, using existing technology.
• Where there is a high abundance thee ore grade is usually lower

  Where there is a low abundance there is usually a high ore grade  
• exploration environmental impacts

  Seismic surveys- dolphins and whales (cetaceans) use echolocation- the survey ship can confuse the dolphins and whales and cause them to become beached. 

  Land surveys often involve vegetation loss and land clearance
• pollution

  Specifically..dust, noise, turbid and toxic drainage water(held in tailings dam) toxic leachate and spoil disposal. 

  Possible collapse of tailings dam

  Dynamite blasting creates noise and dust 

  Acid mine drainage
• acid mine drainage

  Rainfall, oxygen, pyrites inside the spoil heap

  A solution of iron and sulfuric acid comes out the bottom of the spoil heap 

  Acidic and heavy metal loaded water can end up in the water and cause dead aquatic life as metabolic processes have been affected.
• preventing collapse of spoil heaps

  Wire netting

  Get a roller and compact the spoil heap to stop water percolating in

  Plant some vegetation-roots will bind the heap together-root binding

  Landscape it into steps-put timber on the steps to reinforce it-terracing
• how to reduce impacts of acid mine drainage

  Put spoil into container to stop the sulfuric acid- bund made of plastic or rubber- it is impermeable. 

  Add lime (calcium carbonate) to the spoil heap to neutralise the acid

  River in murky- no photosynthesis can happen- can add a processing facility- addition of oxygen precipitates iron out of water-iron oxide is a solid- sinks to the bottom-sedimentation
• noise pollution solutions

  Monitoring the decibels (sound pressure)- stop mining when it gets to a certain limit 

  Landscape the overburden to deflect sound back into the mine- acoustic barriers or baffle mounds

  Designated blasting times 
• how to reduce effects of dust

  Tank sprays out water and the water droplets will catch the dust and make it fall to the ground
• What are the key characteristics of cradle to cradle design?


  • Regenerative approach to design
  • Eliminates waste concept
  • Mimics natural ecosystem cycles
  • Circular economy principle
• What analogy is used to explain cradle to cradle design?


  Nature's recycling system
• What are the five principles of cradle to cradle design?


  1. Waste Equals Food
  2. Use Current Solar Income
  3. Celebrate Diversity
  4. Respect Natural Cycles
  5. Quality Over Quantity