the role of the father

• What is the changing expectation regarding the role of fathers in Western cultures?

  There is an increasing expectation in Western cultures that fathers should play a more active role in raising children, driven by the rise of full-time working mothers in recent decades.
• According to Schaffer & Emerson, what did their findings suggest about fathers as primary attachment figures?

  Fathers are less likely to be the primary attachment figure, with only 3% being the first sole object of attachment. However, 27% were the joint first object, indicating a secondary attachment role.
• What does Ross et al. (1975) suggest about fathers and attachment strength?

  Ross et al. found a positive correlation between the number of nappies changed by fathers and the strength of attachment. This implies that fathers who spend more time with their babies develop stronger attachments.
• What is the positive aspect of fathers being less sensitive in their interactions with children?

  Fathers' lack of sensitivity can encourage the child to develop problem-solving skills, greater communication skills, and independence.
• What criticism is raised about the research on the role of fathers?

  Findings have been inconsistent due to variations in studying fathers as primary or secondary attachment figures, making it difficult to determine the father's actual role.
• According to McCallum (2004), how are children affected by growing up without a father?


  McCallum found that children raised by single mothers or in same-sex families do not develop differently from those in households with both parents, suggesting that fathers may play a secondary role in attachment.
• What does the evidence suggest about the importance of the father's role compared to the mother's?

  Evidence suggests that the role of the father may not be as crucial as the role of the mother in child development.
• How does research by Field (primary caregiving fathers) challenge traditional gender roles in parenting?

  Field's research showed that primary caregiving fathers, like primary caregiving mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating, and holding their babies compared to secondary caregiving fathers, emphasizing that attachment is about responsiveness, not gender.
• What is the conclusion regarding the role of men as primary attachment figures?

  Men can form secure attachments with their children, even as primary caregivers in single-parent families. However, biological and social factors may discourage men from taking on this role.
• What economic implications are associated with the changing roles of fathers?

  The increase in stay-at-home dads signals changing attitudes to home roles, allowing parents to choose the higher-earning partner to return to work. This may contribute to stronger economies in the long term.
• How do fathers typically differ from mothers in their roles?


  Mothers usually adopt a caregiving and nurturing role, while fathers tend to adopt a more playmate role. Fathers are more likely to encourage risk-taking in children through engaging in physical games.
• What biological factors may explain why fathers are less likely to be primary attachment figures?


  Oestrogen and oxytocin, hormones associated with caring behaviours and bonding, are more prevalent in females than males, suggesting a biological basis for women being more likely to be primary attachment figures.
• How do social factors contribute to the differences in the roles of fathers and mothers?


  Societal expectations and gender stereotypes may influence men's behaviour, making them less sensitive to infants' needs. However, there is no gender difference in the physiological response to an infant crying.
• What factors might have led to the rise in stay-at-home dads?


  Economic recessions and the faster recovery of female-dominated professions could be factors contributing to the increase in stay-at-home dads, possibly not always as a voluntary decision.