Biological

• What did Jacob et al (1965) find about XYY sex chromosomes?


  Many men in prison had XYY chromosomes
• What did Adler et al (2007) suggest about aggression?

  Aggression may be partly genetically determined
• What is a limitation of the XYY theory regarding genetic abnormalities?

  Genetic abnormalities are common in the general population
• What does focusing too heavily on genetics ignore?

  The behaviorist approach to understanding behavior
• What did Theilgaard (1984) find about XYY men compared to XY men?

  Aggression was not associated with XYY men
• What is a limitation of the XYY theory regarding female offenders?

  It is not applicable to female offenders
• What are the strengths and limitations of the XYY theory?

  Strengths:

  • Links genetics to aggression
  • Provides examples of violent offenders

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Genetic abnormalities are common
  • Ignores behaviorist perspectives
  • Not applicable to females
• Who was the first to give criminology scientific credibility?

  Lombroso
• What did Charles Goring (1913) find about convicts?

  They had low-order intelligence suggesting a genetic base
• What does research suggest about less attractive individuals?

  They are more likely to be considered guilty
• What did Lombroso challenge about criminals?

  He challenged the idea that criminals choose to be criminal
• What did Lombroso label prisons as?

  Criminal universities
• What is a limitation of Lombroso's study?

  Lack of a control group for comparisons
• What did Charles Goring (1913) find using a non-criminal control group?

  No significant differences in behavior were found
• What is a criticism of atavistic features in criminals?

  Not all criminals have atavistic features
• What did DeLisi (2012) indicate about atavistic features?


  They are specific to people of African descent
• What is a limitation of the atavism theory regarding determinism?

  It is extremely deterministic
• What are the strengths and limitations of the atavism theory?

  Strengths:

  • First scientific approach to criminology
  • Links genetics to criminal behavior

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Lack of control group
  • Scientific racism concerns
  • Overly deterministic
• What is a strength of Sheldon's somatotype classification system?

  It offers simplicity and clarity
• How is Sheldon's somatotype relevant in health and fitness?

  Helps understand body type influences on fitness
• What psychological insights did Sheldon’s theories spur?

  Exploration of body types and personality traits
• What is a limitation of the somatotype theory regarding oversimplification?

  It reduces bodies to just three categories
• What is a limitation of linking body type to personality traits?

  It has been largely discredited by modern research
• What cultural bias exists in Sheldon's theory?

  It reflects a Western view of body ideals
• What are the strengths and limitations of the somatotype theory?

  Strengths:

  • Simple and clear categorization
  • Relevant in health and fitness

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Over-simplifies human diversity
  • Lacks scientific evidence
  • Culturally biased
• What type of studies are twin studies considered?

  Natural experiments
• What does Christiansen (1977) support regarding criminality?

  It has a genetic component
• What is a limitation of early twin studies like Lange (1929)?

  They lacked validity in twin classification
• What is a limitation regarding the environment in twin studies?

  Criminality could relate to nurture, not genetics
• What are the strengths and limitations of twin studies?


  Strengths:

  • Natural experiments
  • Support genetic influence on criminality

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Early studies lacked control
  • Small sample sizes
  • Environmental factors may confound results
• What is a strength of adoption studies regarding environment?

  They separate genetics from environmental factors
• What correlation has been found in adoption studies?

  Between adopted children and biological parents
• What is a limitation regarding the age of adoption?

  Children may be influenced before adoption
• What is a limitation regarding the adoption process?

  It is not always random
• What does Raine et al's research suggest about brain injuries?

  They can alter a person's behavior
• What are the strengths and limitations of adoption studies?

  Strengths:

  • Separate genetics from environment
  • Correlation with biological parents

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Age of adoption influences behavior
  • Information about biological families may be lacking
  • Adoption process may not be random
• What brain areas are mentioned in relation to behavior changes?

  Prefrontal cortex and limbic system
• What neurochemical abnormality can affect behavior?

  Changes in serotonin levels
• What is a limitation regarding offenders with no brain abnormality?

  Some commit crimes without brain issues
• What are the strengths and limitations of brain abnormality/neurochemical theories?

  Strengths:

  • Evidence linking brain injuries to behavior
  • Highlights neurochemical influences

  
  

  Limitations:

  • Not all offenders have brain abnormalities
  • Some lead healthy lifestyles
  • Not all bodybuilders become criminals