Ability to serve all employees

• Unions in 1865 represented only skilled workers in craft industries. As the US was undergoing industrialisation, there were many new, unskilled workers who were excluded from unions.
• Steel production increased from 920,000 in 1860 to 28,200,000 in 1910.
• Arrival of AA workers after abolition meant employers exploited former slaves willing to work for less pay by firing white workers and replacing them with AA. The pool of workers was further increased by immigration. Existing unions saw this as a challenge and refused AA and immigrant members, limiting union size.
• By the outbreak of WW1, unions represented only 20% of the non-agricultural workforce, and many industries such as steel and car manufacturing didn’t have unions.
• New Deal improvements only benefitted some. Many unskilled workers didn’t have rights, and therefore many in mass-production industries. In practice, this meant many from ethnic minorities.
• The Wagner Act didn’t give agricultural workers the right to join unions.
• Equal Pay Act in 1963 gave men and women equal pay for equal work.
• 1964 Civil Rights Act outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin.
• Economic Opportunity Act 1964 increased training opportunities.
• Age Discrimination Act 1968 protected those aged over 40.
• Demand for more skilled and technically advanced workers in the 60s disadvantaged many AA who lacked the education necessary due to poor schooling.
• The Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA), founded by Cesar Chavez, joined to become the United Farmworkers Organizing Committee in 1966, which then became the United Farm Workers (UFW) in 1972.
• In 1975, Chavez secured a victory in California when the Californian Agricultural Labour Relations Act established the California Agricultural Relations Board to oversee collective bargaining for farm labourers.
• New tech and increasing automation in the 50s saw number of blue-collar workers decline. Union membership in these industries fell by 50%.
• A labour shortage due to the growth in the armed forces and ending of immigration during WW2 strengthened the position of workers and provided opportunities for many who had often been unemployed during the Depression, including AA and women.
• The decision of some unions to break away from the AFL, which was more interested in amalgamating craft unions than helping unskilled workers, began the process of union solidarity.
• Breakaways from the AFL set up what was to become the CIO in 1937. The split initially weakened the labour movement, but did establish unions in many of the new mass-production industries, giving many unskilled workers representation.
• The AFL and CIO merged in 1955, bringing 85% of workforce into one unit - around 16 million workers.
• Post-WW2 economy resulted in increase in jobs in white collar and service industries - less likely to join unions and more willing to sign no strike agreements. Proportion of workers in unions dropped to 31% by 1960.
• 60s and 70s - lack of worker solidarity due to continued decline of blue collar workers (supportive of unions) and increase in white collar - less interested in unions, as already well paid and had benefits e.g pensions and healthcare schemes.
• 60s - despite changes in economy, AFL-CIO secured benefits for members e.g. contract negotiations, regulations for promotions and opportunities for workers to voice grievances.
• Refusal of early unions to admit AA meant many remained non-unionised. Allowed employers to exploit divisions and employ them for low wages and poor conditions.
• Early part of period, immigration = north and Western Europe, latter part of 19th century, immigration = south and Eastern Europe. Angered Americans who believed immigrants kept their own wages low and reduced their bargaining power.
• After abolition, many white Americans and European immigrants unwilling to work with AA. Meant at times of industrial unrest, employers would lay off white workers and replace them with AA.
• The fact that employers in the late 19th century could lay off white workers and replace them with AA limited strikes as workers were fearful of being replaced. Also meant employers could sack any workers who attempted to organise action, removing potentially effective union leaders.
• Divisions due to immigration particularly a problem in some cities where they formed over half the population.
• Early 20th century = whilst AFL didn’t exclude AA, many of its affiliated did - harder for porters to organise effective action.
• Racial divisions reinforced by policy of economic separation, outlined by Booker T. Washington - many AA wouldn’t join white led union. Some AA created their own unions = advanced AA civil rights but weakened unity of workforce.
• 2.5 million immigrants arrived from Asia, particularly after Vietnam War, from 1971 to 1990. Willing to work for lower wages, join non-union firms and less interested in joining unions.
• Mary Kenny O’Sullivan - Co-founder of WTUL
• Rose Schneiderman - led 1905 cap-makers strike in New York and actively involved in strike of Triangle Shirtwaist Factory workers in 1909. TSF fire in 1911 inspired her to campaign for better working conditions.
• Gender divisions in early part of period = worst levels of exploitation for AA and Hispanic women - often long hours, dangerous conditions and low pay.
• WTUL (Women’s Trade Union League) founded 1903 by Mary Kelly O’Sullivan and Rose Schneiderman. Encouraged by Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire in 1911 which killed 145 workers. Also involved in franchise campaign.
• The WTUL wanted an 8 hour day and minimum wage - brought into conflict with male unions who believed it was their role to negotiate such issues.
• New Deal didn’t bring equal pay for women so they continued to campaign for it. Not all male unions in support, and ones that did often wanted to stop firms employing women because they were cheaper.
• Increase in women in unions over WW2 = 800,000 in 1940 to 3 million in 1944. Most joined existing male unions, but some larger unions established women’s sections for specific women’s campaigns e.g. equal pay.
• WW2 = increase in number of women as paid union officials.
• Women played significant role in New York hospital worker’s strike in 1962 - forced state governor to recognise right of hospital workers to collectively bargain.
• Post WW2 = many female jobs in service industries = part time and many not interested in unions, reducing numerical power.
• For women post war working full time and concerned about childcare and maternity leave, many more attracted to unions as way to achieve this than the feminist movement = increase in number of women in unions in 70s.