A level Biology - Cloning and Biotechnology

• Name one example of Artificial and Natural Plant cloning

  Artificial: Micropropagation

  Natural: Vegetative Propagation
• Define Micropropagation

  The use of tissue culture to produce multiple artificial clones of plants
• Define Vegetative propagation

  Asexual reproduction of plants to produce identical clones
• State two ways of artificial cloning in animals

  1. Somatic cell nuclear transfer
  2. Embryo splitting
• Outline Somatic cell nuclear transfer

  The nucleus from an adult somatic cell is extracted

  This is put into an enucleated egg cell

  This is transferred into a surrogate mother
• What is the difference between somatic cell nuclear transfer and embryo splitting

  In Somatic cell nuclear transfer the clones are of the nucleus donar body

  In embryo splitting the clones are of each other (artificial twins)
• How is a nucleus and cell fused in Somatic cell nuclear transfer

  electrofusion
• Define Monozygotic twins

  They are produced when an embryo splits at an early stage of development to form separate embryos.
• Outline 2 ways enzymes can be immobilized through surface immobilization

  • Adsorption : Enzymes can be bound to insoluble material
  • Covalent and Ionic bonding : Enzymes can form chemical bonds with materials such as silicia or clay
• Disadvantages of Surface immobilisation of enzymes

  • Bonding with material may alter active site of enzymes
  • Weak bonding may cause the enzymes to leak
  • Can be costly
• Outline how enzymes can be immobilised through entrapment

  • Matrix: Enzymes make be submerged withing a matrix so active sitres unaltered while enzymes not able to move
  • Membrane entrapment: Semi-permeable membrane separating enzyme and substrate solution so never fully mixing
• Disadvantages to Entrapment methods of immobilising enzymes

  • Expensive
  • Depending how entraped active site may become unaccesible
  • Diffusion between materials and membranes may be time consuming