4.2

• the function, shape, land-use pattern and details of the social, economic, and natural environments are determined by the types of people that live there and many different influences on their lives
• in the mid-1800s mechanisation reduced the need for labour in fields so workers moved to industrial towns and cities. The workers provided cheap labour for factories. Some towns took advantage of their location e.g. natural resources and grew as commercial centres.
• the emerging middle class needed ways to organise day-to-day life and county town began to host key administrative functions e.g. county courts, banks and more recently, regional headquarters of various commercial enterprises
• in today's post-industrial economy, towns compete to become important retail destinations, with shopping as a leisure activity. US-style shopping malls encourage retailers to co-locate with restaurants, bowling alleys and cinemas to create the ultimate retail experience
• there have been demographic changes in the UK - in both ethnic composition and age structure. migrants arriving from the Caribbean, West Africa and India after WW2 clustered together in major cities e.g. London and Birmingham
• as the UK struggled with racism and prejudice, some towns associated with ethnic minority communities saw collapsing property prices and spirals of decline. these conditions were made worse by poor housing, out-migration and deindustrialisation.
• some areas because of their relative affordability have been transformed into Bohemian hotspots of thriving alternative music and artists. Brixton in London is attracting young graduates who are reshaping and rebranding these areas into cultural villages --> if this process involves an influx of wealth, it may be called gentrification
• the heritage and cultural history of a place may be significant for its residents. There may be pride in particular tourist attractions, sports clubs, schools or universities.
• describe the employment trends in these types of places:

  • agricultural = primary, slowly declining
  • industrial = secondary, under threat
  • post-industrial decline = high and rising
  • post-industrial regeneration = tertiary/ quaternary --> rapidly rising
• describe the demographic changes in these places:

  • agricultural = counter-urbanisation, elderly people
  • industrial = urbanisation
  • post-industrial decline = suburbanisation, young move outwards
  • post-industrial regeneration = young graduates move in
• physical factors that cause places to change:

  • rapid coastal erosion in some places threatens the livelihood of agricultural workers e.g. Holderness coast and causes more frequent floods leading to the need to invest in flood defences
  • climate change concerns can influence architecture and land-use decisions e.g. farmland is being used for solar farms and renewable energy resources and zero-emission buildings are integrated into urban planning as well as the prioritising public transport
• accessibility and conectedness can change places:

  • UK's motorway: Former major railway towns like Crewe have seen relative decline since the development of the motorways after the 1960s
  • Regional airportse.g. Newcastle has facilitated immigration from Eastern Europe into rural areas of the UK

  • historical development: Totnes introduced transition town projects to protect its local culture and history the local currency (totnes pound) has helped local businesses to thrive and St Mary's Church and Totnes Castle are major cultural attractions in the town
• accessibility and conectedness can change places:

  • Rail network: Since the High Speed 1 railway line in 2007 between London and the Channel coast, villages in Essex and Kent are becoming increasingly popular rural alternatives to the London property prices
  • communication infrastructure: 2/3 of the UK has access to fibre optic broadband the government has provided £530 million of funding for Broadband Delivery UK to extend broadband into rural areas.
• describe the administration in Birmingham:

  Birmingham City Council has 101 councillors. The Labour Party currently has the majority of councillors and runs the council. Birmingham City Council is Europe's largest local authority, serving over one million customers. Birmingham council now bankrupt. Andy Street was elected as Mayor of the West Midlands in 2017. In 2021, Simon Foster became the West Midlands new Police and Crime commissioner.
• describe Birmingham's retail function:

  The Bullring has over 160 shops, including one of only four Selfridges in the world. Grand Central is connected to New Street, which makes the shopping destination easily accessible. The MailBox has many luxury shops and restaurants such as Harvey Nichols and Lucarelli, as well as offices and apartments. → regenerated post office building. The Jewellery Quarter has over 700 jewellers and produces over 40% of the UK’s jewellery.
• describe the industrial history of Birmingham:

  Birmingham was Britain’s centre of manufacturing in the 20th century, it became known as the “city of a thousand trades” and “the engine room of the UK”. Ammunition, guns, metal ware, tools and watches were produced in Birmingham. The Lunar Society of Birmingham was formed in 1765 which was a centre for industrialists and intellectuals.
• describe the gentrification in Birmingham:

  The £2.2bn regeneration of Ladywood Estate would involve bulldozing many of the almost 2,000 homes and replacing them with 7,000 new ones, forcing residents out. It’s estimated to take 20 years to complete and would also add a new school, public parks, business premises and community facilities.
• describe the change in age structure of Birmingham:

  Between the last two censuses, the average (median) age of Birmingham increased from 32 to 34. Highest age percentage = 35-49 with 19.4% of population. (19.7% in 2011)
• describe the ethnic composition of Birmingham:

  48.6% of Birmingham's pop was white, decreased from 57.9% in 2011. In 2021, 31.0% of residents in Birmingham were in the "Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh" category. England: 81.0% white in 2021 and 9.6% "Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh"
• describe a physical factor that has changed Bham:

  Birmingham's central location makes it a transportation centre, facilitating trade and migration as it’s close to major cities e.g. London and Manchester which connects it to national markets
• describe the accessibility and connectedness of Bham:

  It is only an 1 hour and 15 minute train journey from London. The M6 is a major motorway that runs straight

  through Birmingham and is set to be the centre hub for the new HS2 rail

  network. Birmingham International Airport.
• describe the historical development of Birmingham:

  Immigration after the war and the Windrush generation has created Birmingham’s demographic.
• describe the role of local and national planning in Birmingham:

  Central government and European funding, plus focused support from the City Council and other agencies has targeted regeneration on deprived areas across the city
• describe the administration in Cornwall:

  Cornwall council has 87 councillors. The Conservative Party currently has the majority of councillors and runs the council. There has been a controversial decision about whether Cornwall should have a directly elected mayor.
• describe the retail in Cornwall:

  Traditional Cornish town, Redruth, has a wide variety of specialist shops that offer handmade jewellery, local meat and produce and Cornish craft. The seaside town Falmouth offers a mixture of independent retailers (e.g. surf shops) together with the bigger high street names.
• describe the industrial history of Cornwall:

  Cornwall was established as the mining capital of the world, with the extraction of tin reaching its peak in the 19th century, and then later, English China Clay. It is world famous for its Camborne School of Mines, and today Cornwall is recognised as the Cornish Mining World Heritage Site.
• describe gentrification of Cornwall:

  Less gentrification than larger urban areas. Coastal towns such as St Ives and Padstow have experienced some gentrification, causing rising property prices and fine dining restaurants.
• describe the age structure in Cornwall:

  Between the last two censuses, the average (median) age of Cornwall increased from 45 to 47. Highest age percentage = 50-64 with 21.8% of population. (21.6% in 2011)
• describe Cornwall's ethnic compostition:

  96.8% of Cornwall’s pop was white, decreased from 98.2% in 2011. In 2021, 1.2% of residents in Cornwall were in the “multiple or mixed ethnic groups” category. England: 81.0% white in 2021 and 3% “multiple or mixed ethnic groups”
• describe physical factors that have changed Cornwall:

  foreign competition depressed the price of copper, and later tin, to a level that made the extraction of Cornish ore unprofitable.
• describe the accessibility and connectedness of Cornwall:

  Cornwall has an International Airport. Cornwall is one of the few English counties with no motorways and it is a 5 hours and 15 minutes train journey from London.
• describe the historical development of Cornwall:

  the decline of the mining industry caused a rise in unemployment levels, which led to emigration from Cornwall, seeking job opportunities elsewhere.
• describe the role of local and national planning in Cornwall:

  The South West Development Agency used the governments money to stimulate and regenerate the economy. The National Lottery Fund funded the Eden Project. The Millennium commission also have £37.5 million moving the total amount to

  £56 million