Exam 1

• Ionic bonds (electrostatic interaction) work by electrons donated by on atom to another. Cations is positively charged and anions are negatively charged.
• Hydrogen bonding is weaker than covalent bonds and this leads to hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Hydrophilic means water lovers and hydrophobic means water haters. Hydrophilic substances can dissolve readily in water and the atoms are charged or polar. Hydrophobic means its insoluble in water and it is uncharged and non polar.
• Monomers are letters however polymers are joining monomers to make chains.
• Amino Acids makes protein and they make peptide bonds. Peptide bonds are covalent linkage between adjacent amino acids in the protein chain. This is a condensation reaction. N ---> C is how we read the chain.
• Nucleotides form Nucleic Acid, nucleic acids are long polymers of covalently bound nucleotides subunits. This is DNA AND RNA. Phosphodiester bond is what makes the bond in nucleotides. Backbone of DNA is phosphate and sugar (ALWAYS), the only difference is the bases that stick out the backbone. Direction if this is 5 prime to 3 prime.
• Covalent Bonds are the marriage bonds meaning they share the electrons.
• The glycosidic bond is a condensation reaction, it creates bond and molecule of water are expelled as bond forms. Hydrolysis breaks bonds and water molecules are consumed.
• Fatty acids make lipids. The long hydrocarbon chain is not chemically reactive however the carboxyl group is chemically reactive. Amphipathic possess both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. Fatty acids are insoluble in water meaning hydrophilic and are soluble in fat.
• Triacylglycerol molecules are three fatty acids chains joined by a glycerol. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds which means they pack together in solid mass EX: meats and dairy. Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one double bond. Bonds produce kinks and they contain monounsaturated and polyunsaturated.
• Macromolecules are polymers constructed by covalently linking monomers into a polymer.
• Catabolic (Catabolism) means breaking down food molecules. This is a useful form of energy and small molecules use this as the building block. Anabolic (Anabolism) is making and it uses energy created by catabolic for synthesis of molecules that form the cell.
• Metabolic pathways is the series of chemical reactions that occur in a cell to produce a product. Enzymes accelerate the reaction time. Enzyme are highly selective and speed up specific reactions.
• Activation energy is the energy that is required to start a reaction.
• Photosynthesis converts electromagnetic energy in sunlight into chemic bond energy. Light + CO2 + H2O --> sugars + O2 + heat (energy)
• Nerve/muscle cells can be nearly 1 meter however majority of the cells are micrometer.
• Prokaryotes are small single cellular organisms. Most diverse cells, can adapt to extreme environments.
• Eukaryotes are bigger and more elaborate, they can be single cell like yeast and they can be multi-cellular. They always have a nucleus.
• Nucleus is the government(Double membrane system), ribosomes are the smallest structure and they make all the new proteins, mitochondria is the most abundant organelle and this oxides food molecules to generate ATP (Cellular respiration) and it contains their own DNA and they reproduce themselves. It is the older endosymbiotic.
• Chloroplast is the solar power plant only found on plants and algae and it uses photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy(sugar). Inner membrane contains chlorophyll and it could be created by endosymbiosis.
• Light microscope is the simple microscope which uses light as the source.
• Primary cell culture are isolated directly from live organism and have limited lifespan. Immortalized cell line are transformed cells that grow indefinitely. They have unlimited uses.
• E.coli is singular, circular double strand of DNA. Saccharineomyces cerevisiae is like yeast and a eukaryote. Arabiopsis thaliana contains a common wall cress and produces thousands of offspring in 8-10 weeks. Drosophila melanogaster showed how to trace cause and effect from DNA instructions to structure. Caenorhabditis elegans develops 959 body, led to understanding of programmed cell death. Danio rerio is transparent for 2 weeks, excellent for development studies.
• The lysosomes (water disposal system) contains a membrane and houses intracellular degradation, peroxisomes contains the H2O reactions and H2O2 is generated and degraded inside.
• ER is the highway of the cell, the RER is ribosome coated to make proteins to be secreted, and SER does lipid synthesis.
• Golgi body is the Post office, it packs and modifies proteins to be secreted by the cell to other locations which is how cells communicate.
• Lipids can be converted to Acetyl Co A and lipids are 6 times more energy than sugar.
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and does NOT require O2. It produces 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. The pyruvate is pumped into mitochondria. This step contains enzymes.
• After glycolysis, pyruvate is oxidized to Acetyl Co A. This also occurs in the mitochondria. It is catalyzed by a large multi-enzyme complex: pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
• Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and the starting product is Acetyl Co A(from lipids or pyruvate). This process does not require O2.
• Alpha helix can form transmembrane protein. N to H of every peptide bond hydrogen bounded to the C=O. Amino acids with non polar side chains. The inside is hydrophobic and the other parts are hydrogen bonds. This can also form coiled-coil structure.
• Beta pleated sheets can be antiparallel and parallel. Both form rigid, pleated structure. The arrows go in N --> C. Held together by hydrogen bonding.
• Protein domains is a part of a protein sequence that has a specific function. A part of a polypeptide chain can fold into a compact stable structure.
• Protein complexing or quaternary regulation adds layer of regulation.
• Ligand is a small molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein.
• Antibodies are proteins produced by immune system in response to foreign molecules. They recognize target antigen with high specificity and binds very tightly. They are Y shaped which gives it two identical binding sites that are each complementary to small portion of surface of antigen. The antigen is beta pleated sheets.
• The oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondria membrane. It requires oxygen so it is aerobic and it created 30 ATP.
• Glycogen is a multi-branched polysaccharide comprised of glucose. Glycogen Synthase makes glycogen and Glycogen phosphorylase breaks glycogen.
• Fat cells store energy and fat is stored as droplets of water-insoluble triacylglycerols in specialized adipose tissues.
• Starch is branched polymer of glucose similar to glycogen(plants). Fats in plants are the same as animals, however they differ in the types of fatty acids which are unsaturated.
• Mitochondria: matrix contains enzymes including those required for oxidations of pyruvate and fatty acid for Krebs. Inner membrane contain protein responsible for electron chain and ATP synthase which makes the ATP in the matrix. Outer membrane is permeable. Intermembrane space contains enzyme that use ATP from matrix to phosphorylate other nucleotides.