biochem

• The urea cycle is a biochemical pathway in the liver that converts toxic ammonia into urea for excretion.
• Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase catalyzes the first step of the urea cycle, which involves the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from NH3, CO2, ATP, and HPO4-2
• Ammonium ion (NH4+) is converted to urea through several steps involving different enzymes.
• Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which ATP is synthesized using energy derived from the electron transport chain.
• Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate.
• Ureidosuccinic acid is formed by condensation with aspartate.
• Argininosuccinate synthase catalyzes the reaction between citrulline and aspartate to form argininosuccinate.
• Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
• Citrate is produced during glycolysis and enters the Krebs cycle via conversion to oxaloacetate.
• The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates ATP, reducing power, and precursors for biosynthesis.
• Ornithine transcarbamylase catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from carbamoylphosphate to ornithine, forming citrulline.
• Citrulline is converted back to ornithine via the action of Arginine deiminase.
• Argininosuccinate lyase cleaves argininosuccinate to form fumarate and citrulline.
• Electron carriers such as NADH and FADH2 are produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
• Coupling factor 0 (CF0) is a component of ATP synthase responsible for proton pumping.
• Coupling factor 0 (CF0) is a component of ATP synthase responsible for proton pumping.
• Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle, where it undergoes multiple reactions to produce carbon dioxide and high-energy electrons.
• Pyruvic acid can be further oxidized to acetyl CoA or reduced to lactic acid.
• Citrate synthase catalyzes the formation of citrate from oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA.
• The Krebs cycle involves the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and high-energy electrons.
• Isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the conversion of isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate, producing NADPH.
• NAD+ is reduced to NADH during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
• Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex catalyzes the conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA, generating GDP and FADH2.
• NADH generated from NAD+ reduction can be used for energy production or transferred to FADH2 through electron transport chain (ETC).
• FADH2 is reduced from FAD and transfers electrons to ETC.
• ATP synthetase uses proton gradient across inner membrane to generate ATP.
• Aspartate transcarbamoylase catalyzes the formation of N-succinylornithine from succinylCoA and carbamoyl phosphate.
• N-Succinylornithine is converted into citrulline through decarboxylation.
• Fumarate hydratase converts fumarate into malate.
• Malic enzyme converts malate to pyruvate with NADPH as a cofactor.
• Fatty Acid Synthesis (FAS) pathway involves the condensation of two-carbon units derived from acetyl CoA into longer chain fatty acids.
• Urea synthetase catalyzes the formation of urea by combining carbon dioxide with NH3.
• NADPH is used as a source of electrons for reductive reactions such as fatty acid synthesis.
• Coupling factor 1 (CF1) is a component of ATP synthase responsible for generating ATP.
• Argininosuccinate lyase cleaves argininosuccinate into fumarate and arginine.
• ATP synthase consists of two main components: CF1 and CF0.
• NADH/NADPH are used to reduce FAD and generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
• NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to complexes I-IV of the electron transport chain (ETC) located on the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
• Protons flow through the channel formed by CF0, causing it to rotate.
• The electron transport chain consists of four protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.