121 Fundamentals of Human Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of body structures/body parts
• Nomenclature of anatomy is vital for identification
• Nomenclature is decided through:

  • Organ system
  • Person involved
  • Directional terms (Inferior/Superior)
  • Latin/Greek root
• Physiology is the study of describing how body parts work through:

  • Main purpose
  • Systematic work (Chronological steps)
  • Mechanisms
• If the internal/external substances acquired are disrupted, it leads to pathophysiology
• Pathophysiology is the study of disease states, which distinguishes healthy vs disease states
• Homeostasis is:

  • Condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment
  • It provokes the system to a non-disease system
  • VITAL for survival
• Anatomical subspecialties include, but is not limited to:

  • Embryology - how eggs work within 8 weeks
  • Developmental biology - complete development
  • Cell biology/Cytology
  • Surface anatomy - visual to palpation representation
  • Histology - understanding the normal structure of the cell
  • Gross anatomy - anatomy at the naked eye
  • Systemic anatomy - How systems work with each other
  • Regional anatomy - Specific sites/sections
  • Radiographic anatomy - X-ray/MRI/CT Scan
  • Pathological anatomy
• Physiological subspecialties include, but not limited to:

  • Neurophysiology
  • Endocrinology
  • Cardiovascular physiology
  • Immunology - Defending itself from diseases
  • Respiratory physiology
  • Renal physiology - How the kidneys work (Filtration, Monitoring BP)
  • Exercise physiology
  • Pathophysiology
• Hierarchy: A system of structural organization from simple substances (building blocks) to complex substances
• Chemical level

  1. Atom - smallest unit
  2. Elements - pure substances
  3. Ion - charged particles that go in and out of the cell
  4. Molecule - atoms that share electrons
  5. Compound - Atoms of 2 or more different elements
  6. Free radicals - byproducts of chemical reactions
• Ions have a great level of importance due to their source, roles, and effect.
• Reactions in compounds include synthesis, decomposition, reversible, displacement, and redox
• Free radicals are very unstable and highly reactive. The high value of this in the body will lead to superoxides, which are prevented by taking anti-oxidants.
• Cellular level

  1. Transport mechanisms - Active/Passive
  2. Cell division - Mitosis/Meiosis
• Tissue level

  1. Epithelial tissue - surrounds hollow organs and acts as covering and is a selective barrier
  2. Connective tissue - Protect, support, and store energy
• Epithelial tissue includes:

  1. Simple - single-layer
  2. Stratified - multi-layer
  3. Pseudostratified - single layer seemingly disguised as multiple layers
• Epithelial tissue's cell shapes are cuboidal, columnar, transitional, and squamous
• Connective tissues are from mesenchymal cells, which are progenitor/mother cells.
• Cells involved in connective tissues are:

  • Fibroblasts - flat and large
  • Macrophages - Engulf foreign substances
  • Plasma cells - Product antibodies for immunity
  • Mast cells - Produce histamine
  • Adipocytes - fat cells
  • White blood cells - migrate from blood vessels during an infection
• 3 Types of WBC's

  1. Granulocytes
  2. Neutrophils - for infection
  3. Eosinophils - for parasitic invasion
  4. Basophils - for allergies
  5. Lymphocytes - B & T-cells
  6. Monocytes - Phagocytes
• Extracellular Matrix Contents:

  • Ground substance - Fluid, semi-fluid, calcified, gelatinous
  • Fibers - Collagen, Elastic, Reticular
• Classification of Connective Tissues:

  1. Embryonic Connective Tissue
  2. Mature Connective Tissue
  3. Muscular tissue - for contraction and generating heat
  4. Nervous tissue - for detection of changes
• Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissues for covering and lining.
• Membranes have two types:

  1. Epithelial membrane
  2. Mucous - Anything with an opening
  3. Serous - Within the cavity (hollow space)
  4. Cutaneous - Covering surface (Skin)
  5. Synovial membrane - where bones come together
  6. Synovial fluid - for lubrication
• Organ level: organs that are made up of two or more types of tissues joined together. Usually have recognizable shapes.
• Organ systems: Related organs that perform a common function.
• Organism: living individuals where all the body parts are functioning together
• Organ Systems and their Functions:

  1. Integumentary system - For protection and synthesis of Vit. D
  2. Nervous system - Regulate and control body activities
  3. Skeletal system - Produces RBCs through bone marrow
  4. Muscular system - Heat generation
  5. Cardiovascular system - Circulation of blood
  6. Digestive system - Absorption of nutrients
  7. Respiratory system - Production of sound
  8. Endocrine system - Hormone regulation
  9. Lymphatic system - Immunity
  10. Urinary system - Production, storage, and elimination of urine and wastes
  11. Reproductive system - Gametes production
• Basic Life Processes

  1. Metabolism - sum of all chemical processes
  2. Catabolism - breaking down
  3. Anabolism - making
  4. Gluconeogenesis - production of new sugar units (carbohydrates)
  5. Responsiveness - detect and respond to bodily changes from stimuli
  6. Movement - motion of the body, including the transfer of molecules and substances in and out of the cell or from one to another
  7. Growth - increases in SIZE
  8. Apoptosis - programmed cell death
  9. Differentiate - development from unspecialized cells (STEM) to specialized cells (DIFFERENTIAL)
  10. Reproduction - formation and increase in number of cells