Biology

• arrange the levels of organization from smallest to largest:

  atoms -> organelle -> cell -> tissue -> organ -> organ system -> organism -> population -> community -> ecosystem -> biome
• Eukaryotic cells are cells with organelles, it has membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus
• Prokaryotic cells are simpler and usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles.
• Cytology is the study of cells
• Histology is the study of tissues
• Hyperplasia is the increase in the number of cells
• Hypertrophy is the increase and growth of muscle cells
• Identify which organ system secrete each waste:

  Digestive system-> feces

  Integumentary system -> sweat

  Urinary system -> urine

  Respiratory system -> carbon dioxide
• Catalyst increases the rate of reaction without itself being changed, by lowering the activation energy.
• Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers.
• Substrate is a chemical that will be reacted upon by an enzyme to form a product in a reaction.
• Active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction
• Lock and key model states that only one specific shape of substrate can fit into the active site of an enzyme.
• Induced-fit model explains how enzymes work as it takes into account the flexibility of proteins and the fact that some enzymes change their shape when they interact with a substrate.
• Anabolic reactions is the building up of larger molecules
• Catabolic reactions is the breaking down of larger molecules into smaller molecules.
• Autotrophs are “self feeders” and sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living beings.
• Photosynthesis converts light energy from the sun to the chemical energy stored in glucose.
• Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, a specialized organelle found in plant cells.
• Photosynthesis Equation:

  Light + 6 CO2 + 6 H20 -> C6H1206 (Glucose) + 6 02
• Light reaction is a part of the process of photosynthesis that occurs in the thylakoid which goes through the photosystems and produces ATP and NADPH. Also in here, H20 is splitted and releases O2
• Calvin Cycle is a part of the process of photosynthesis that occurs in the stroma that produces G3P (which is then formed to glucose) using ATP and NADPH. Also in here, CO2 is incorporated into organic molecules.
• Cell Respiration Equation:

  C6H12O6 + 6 02 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + ATP (Energy)
• Glycolysis is a part of the process of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules
• Pyruvate Oxidation is a part of the process of cellular respiration in which oxidation of the pyruvate occurs to create Acetyl-CoA.
• The electron transport chain consists of four protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, as well as mobile carriers called ubiquinone and cytochrome c.
• Homeostasis is the process by which an organism maintains the constant internal conditions necessary for life
• Passive Transport is the movement towards a concentration gradient, requiring no energy from the cell.
• Active Transport is the movement against the concentration gradient with the use of energy.
• Endocytosis is the ingestion of large particles by the cell.

  Two types:

  • Phagocytosis - cell eating
  • Pinocytosis - cell drinking
• Exocytosis is the process by which cells excrete waste and other large molecules from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior, "cell vomiting".
• The Cell Theory was proposed by Matthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, which states that:

  1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
  2. A cell is the organism’s basic unit of structure and function
  3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
• Nucleus is the control center of the cell which contains the DNA
• Plasma Membrane is a selectiviley permeable membrane that is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids. It separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
• Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that contains enzymes and other organelles. It is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane; the site of most cellular activities.
• Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that contains enzymes and other organelles. It is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane; the site of most cellular activities.
• Rough Endoplastic Reticulum, studded with millions of membrane bound ribosomes, is involved with the production, folding, quality control and despatch of some proteins.
• Smooth Edoplamic Reticulum is largely associated with lipid (fat) manufacture and metabolism and steroid production hormone production. It also has a detoxification function. It is used for the creation/ storage of lipids and steroid.
• Ribosome is the site of protein synthesis in the cell. It is a large structure made up of RNA and proteins.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum is an extensive network of membrane bounded tubules and sacs; membrane separates lumen from cytosol; continuous with nuclear envelope.