Bio 2

• Living organisms are composed of four macromolecules: Nucleic acids, Amino acids, Carbohydrates, and Lipids.
• Carbohydrates are a type of macromolecule that consists of thousands of atoms united by covalent bonds.
• Polymers are molecules made up of a large number of identical or similar units (monomers) attached by covalent bonds.
• A monomer is the basic structural unit of polymers.
• Dehydration (condensation) is the synthesis of polymers.
• A lipid, namely a steroid, where the functional group changes the property and function of the sexual hormone is an example of a functional group.
• Functional groups are specific molecular groups that bond to carbon-hydrogen cores.
• Hydrolysis is the degradation of polymers, which involves the breakdown of a polymer in smaller molecules by the addition of water.
• Functional groups are specific molecular groups that bond to carbon-hydrogen cores, each with unique chemical properties.
• Sulfhydryl group is slightly polar and it can bond with itself.
• Since Amino group can remove H + from solution, they are basic.
• Nonpolar functional groups are hydrophobic and thus in aqueous solution they tend to arrange themselves together away from water molecules.
• Both the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups are polar because of the electronegativity of the oxygen atoms.
• Nonpolar functional groups don’t differ significantly in their atoms electronegativity and thus electrons are evenly distributed, with no significant differences in charge over the molecular surface, for example, C-H bond in methane.
• Methyl groups is nonpolar because there is little electronegativity difference between the carbon and hydrogen atoms.
• Ionic bond can be created between acidic and basic functional groups.
• Both the carboxyl and phosphate groups are acidic because they can release a H + in solution.
• The uneven distribution of electrons make the molecule polar (symbolised by the lowercase Greek letter delta δ).
• Polar functional groups tend to make hydrogen bond between the electronegative element, such as oxygen, and hydrogen.
• Polar functional groups are hydrophilic (love water).
• Cell membrane Part 1 is a topic in General Biology 2 Winter 2024 focusing on lipids.
• Clathrins are involved in receptor mediated endocytosis.
• The interior protein network consists of spectrins.
• The plasma membrane structure consists of cell membranes.
• Cell membranes contain two types of proteins: spectrins and clathrins.
• Endocytosis is a type of cellular transport.
• The properties of a phospholipid are recognized and described in Chapter 5, Section 5.1, Figure 5.1, p. 93.
• The plasma membranes are diagrammed and described in Chapter 5, Figure 5.3.
• The factors involved in membrane fluidity are related to degree of fatty acid saturation and cholesterol.
• The four components of the cell plasma membrane, their composition and function, with examples are known in Chapter 5, Section 5.1 and 5.3, Table 5.1.
• The seven functions of membrane proteins are described in Chapter 5, Section 5.3, Figure 5.8.
• Most transmembrane proteins remain embedded in the lipid bilayer by hydrophobic interactions and can be anchored to the cytoskeleton.
• Proteins are used to move material across the plasma membranes, and proteins have specificity, can saturate in their involvement to move material.
• Proteins allow membranes to be selective, and facilitated diffusion is essential to this selectivity.
• The Na/K or proton pump may be used to transport other material through cotransport.
• Endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis are different types of membrane transport.
• Lipids are a loosely defined group of molecules with one main chemical characteristic: they are insoluble in water.
• Lipids have a high proportion of nonpolar C-H bonds, causing the molecule to be hydrophobic.
• Lipids do not form polymers.
• There are three families of lipids: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, and Sphingolipids.