Mary's accession, aims and opposition

• The Royal Supremacy and problems with Mary's First Parliament: Aug–Sept 1553 (1)

  • Mary became queen in 1553, fulfilling fears about female rule. Her accession went against Henry VIII’s intentions, who had broken with Rome to avoid a female successor and feared civil war or Yorkist usurpation.
  • Determined to reverse the Reformation, Mary aimed to restore Catholicism but sought Parliamentary approval for any religious change.
  • She defeated Northumberland with wide support, showing political skill and pragmatism in building a broad Privy Council, including both loyal Catholics (e.g., Gardiner as Lord Chancellor) and Edwardian advisers (e.g., Paget, Paulet, Petre).
• The Royal Supremacy and problems with Mary's First Parliament: Aug–Sept 1553 (2)

  • Reformers like Cranmer, Hooper, and Latimer were arrested; Duke of Norfolk was released.
  • Despite conservative opposition (e.g., John Knox’s views on female rulers), the court remained loyal due to the strong Tudor monarchy.
  • Imperial ambassador Simon Renard had major influence, despite Mary’s broad-based council.
• The Royal Supremacy and problems with Mary's First Parliament: Aug–Sept 1553 (3)

  • Parliament was divided, especially over her proposed marriage to Philip of Spain, which even Gardiner opposed in favour of Edward Courtenay.
  • Mary’s first Parliament repealed Edwardian religious reforms (except the Chantries Act), restored the Henrician service, but refused to revive heresy laws—possibly due to fear of public unrest like that after the repeal of the Six Articles.
  • A major obstacle was the issue of Church property. Many MPs had benefitted from ex-monastic lands and were unwilling to return it, making reconciliation with Rome difficult.
• The issue of the Spanish marriage (1)

  • Mary wanted to marry quickly to secure a Catholic heir and prevent Elizabeth from inheriting and restoring Protestantism.
  • At 37, her childbearing years were limited, making the issue urgent.
  • Under the Third Act of Succession (1543), her marriage needed Privy Council approval.
  • Few suitable English suitors: Courtenay, backed by Gardiner, had been imprisoned since age 12 and was unpolished.
  • Mary favoured Philip of Spain, son of Charles V — Catholic, royal, and politically linked to England’s trade interests (e.g., Antwerp).
  • Despite concerns about foreign influence and war, Philip was appealing to Mary personally and politically.
• The issue of the Spanish marriage (2)

  • The Privy Council was not initially consulted; once informed, there was divided opinion. Gardiner still backed Courtenay.
  • A deputation from MPs and the council urged Mary to reconsider, but she rejected them.
  • The marriage treaty, designed by Mary, Paget, Gardiner, and Renard, ensured:
  • Philip would be King but English laws remained unchanged.
  • Foreigners couldn’t hold office.
  • If childless, succession followed the Third Act (Elizabeth).
  • England would not be drawn into Philip’s wars without consent.
  • Despite safeguards, xenophobia was widespread — especially among the Commons — and fears of Spanish dominance persisted.
  • Opposition led to Wyatt’s Rebellion (1554) as the marriage was announced.
  • Mary married Philip in July 1554.
  • For Mary: a romantic match, emotionally invested.
  • For Philip: a dynastic alliance, but he grew frustrated with his limited power and returned to the continent by 1557.
• Obstacles to the restoration of the Catholic Church (1)

  • Mary wanted full restoration of papal authority and repeal of Reformation laws, but faced multiple challenges.
  • Though England was not deeply Protestant, many were not ready to return to Catholicism either.
  • A generation had grown up under Protestantism; traditional Catholic practices and structures had been dismantled under Henry and Edward.
  • The Western Rebellion (1549) showed support for Catholic doctrine (e.g., Six Articles) but not necessarily for full papal restoration.
• Obstacles to the restoration of the Catholic Church (2)

  • Catholicism relied on ritual and visual symbols (e.g., rood screens, vestments, altars), most of which had been destroyed during the Edwardian reforms and Dissolution of the Monasteries.
  • Protestantism was easier to maintain—just a Bible and prayer books—while Catholicism required resources and obedience.
  • Many questioned core doctrines like purgatory and prayers for the dead, as these had been challenged during Edward's reign.
  • Restoring even the Catholic Church of six years earlier was complex due to the material, doctrinal, and cultural transformations that had taken place.