Carbohydrates

• • Sources : corn, wheat, rice, sago, honey, fruit, sugar cane, sugar beets, sugar maple - hydrolysis of starch; product of hydrolysis of sucrose.
• Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols containing C, H and O and are generally in the same ratio as in H2O (2:1).
• Sugars are monosaccharides that cannot be hydrolyzed to simple sugar substances and are ketonic or aldehydic substitution products of polyhydric alcohols.
• Trioses are C3H6O3.
• Tetrose is C4H8O4.
• Pentoses are C5H10O5, including xylose, ribose, arabinose, and rhamnose, which occur in nature usually as products of hydrolysis of hemicellulose, gums and mucilages.
• Hexoses are sugars with the general formula C6H12O6, including glucose, galactose, mannose, and fructose, which are the most important monosaccharides found in plants and are the first detectable sugars synthesized by plants.
• Oligosaccharides are composed of more than one saccharide group.
• Disaccharides are composed of two saccharide groups, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Polysaccharides are composed of more than two saccharide groups, including homoglycans and heteroglycans.
• Biosynthesis of carbohydrates involves the production of monosaccharides by photosynthesis, which consists of two classes of reactions: light reaction that converts electromagnetic energy into chemical energy and enzymatic reaction that utilizes the energy from the light reaction to fix carbon dioxide into sugar (dark reactions).
• Sucrose, also known as cane sugar, beet sugar, or table sugar, is produced by biologic process that converts electromagnetic energy into chemical energy and is obtained from sugar cane, sugar beets, and sugar maple.
• Dextrose, also known as blood sugar or D-glucose, is a product of hydrolysis of sucrose and is obtained from grapes.
• The usual diuretic dose of mannitol is 50 - 100 g daily dose in a 5 - 25% solution, IV infusion.
• Sorbitol (D - glucitol) is a hexitol obtained from the ripe berries of mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia, Rosaceae, known as a well known hexahydric sugar alcohol, half as sweet as sucrose, with humectant properties.
• Starch is a linear molecule composed of 250 to 300 D - glucopyranose units uniformly linked by alpha 1,4 glucosidic bonds, is soluble in water, contains 25% in starch, and has a deep blue complex when reacted with iodine.
• Sorbitol is used as an ingredient in toothpaste, chewing gums and various dietetic products.
• The systematic nomenclature of polysaccharides end with “an” and glycan is another word for polysaccharide.
• Homoglycans contain one type of monosaccharide unit, while heteroglycans contain more than one kind of monosaccharide unit.
• Starch is an organic compound widely distributed in plants, serving as a permanent reserve food material in plants.
• Mannitol is used as an osmotic diuretic and diagnostic aid, with a usual diagnostic dose of 200mg/kg in a 15 - 25% sol IV in 3 - 5 min.
• Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides (sugar) linked together through glycosidic (ether) linkages.
• Starch, a polysaccharide, has a botanical origin in Zea mays, Graminae (matured grain of corn), Triticum aestivum (wheat), and Solanum tuberosum, Solaneceae (potato tubers).
• Mannitol (D - mannitol) is a hexahydric alcohol obtained by reduction of mannose or by isolation from Manna, a dried saccharine exudates of Fraxinus ornus, Oleaceae, containing 50 to 60% of mannitol.
• Inulin or hydrous inulin is a D - fructo - furanose polymer obtained from the subterranean organs of members of family Compositae.
• Purified Cotton is the hair of the seed of cultivated varieties of Gossypium Hirsutum and is also referred to as absorbent cotton, which is employed as a surgical dressing.
• Starch contains 75 - 80% amylopectin.
• Hetastarch is a semisynthetic material that is prepared in such a manner that it is approximately 90% amylopectin and is used as a plasma expander.
• Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth and is the chief polysaccharide of plant cell walls.
• Amylopectin has a blue - violet or purple color when reacted with iodine.
• Gums are translucent, amorphous substances that are produced frequently in high plants as a protective after injury.
• Sources of commercially useful gums include shrub/tree exudates (acacia, karaya, tragacanth, ghatti), marine gum (agar, algin, carrageenan), seed gums (guar, locust gum, psyllium), and microbial (dextran, xanthan).
• DEXTRAN is a botanical product obtained from Leuconostoc mesenteroides and is a 1,6 - linked polyglucan formed from sucrose by the action of a transglucosylase enzyme (dextran sucrase).
• Heteroglycans are natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as anionic or nonionic polysaccharides or salt of polysaccharides.
• Pregelatinized starch is starch that has been chemically or mechanically processed to rupture all parts of the granules in the presence of water.
• Sodium Starch glycolate is a semisynthetic material, the sodium salt of a carboxymethyl ether of starch, and is used as a disintegration agent in tablet formulation.
• Amylopectin consists of 1000 or more glucose units that are also connected with alpha1,4 linkages and is a branched component of starch.
• Fructose, also known as levulose, is a product of hydrolysis of sucrose and is obtained from corn, wheat, rice, sago, honey, fruit, sugar cane, sugar beets, and sugar maple.
• Tartaric Acid, also known as 1,2,3, dihydroxy butane dioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid obtained as a by product of the wine industry and is used as a substitute for citric acid.
• Fructopyranose, also known as fruit sugar, is obtained from sweet fruits and honey, and is a ketone sugar that occurs naturally in most sweet fruit.