CUE - Content

• Urbanisation: an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities compared to rural areas
• World Cities: a city that can be considered as a major hub within the global economy
• Gentrification:  Process in which older urban zones are rediscovered and renovated by individuals who move back into the inner city from their suburban fringes.
• Urban form: Relates to the physical characteristics that go towards making up an urban area
• Urban Policy: the strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems
• Regeneration: the investment of capital and ideas into an area in order to revitalise and renew its economic, social and/or environmental condition
• Suburbanisation: the process of population movement from the central areas of the city toward the suburbs on the outskirts or the rural-urban fringe.
• Urban sprawl: the process of outward growth of urban areas engulfing surrounding villages and urban areas
• Greenbelts: a ring of land around a town or a city, like parks, agricultural areas, or other types of open space to limit urban sprawl.
• Sink estates: a council housing estate with high levels of social problems, particularly crime.  
• Counter-urbanisation is the migration of people from major urban areas to smaller urban settlements and rural areas. It leads to the growth of rural areas beyond the main city.
• Urban Morphology: study of the formation of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation.
• Urban Resurgence: the regeneration of what used to be called ‘inner cities’, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline.
• Temperatures: the urban heat island effect
• Precipitation: frequency and intensity, fogs, thunderstorms and their relationships to urban form and processes
• Air Quality: particulate pollution, photochemical smog and pollution reduction policies
• Winds: the effects of urban structures and layout on variations in wind speed, direction and frequency
• Microclimate: where there are small scale variations in temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and evaporation
• Sustainable development: seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future. Far from requiring the cessation of economic growth, it recognizes that the problems of poverty and underdevelopment cannot be solved unless we have a new era of growth in which developing countries play a large role and reap large benefits.
• Urban Resilience: the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses and systems within a city survive, adapt and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience
• Chronic Stress: slow moving disasters that weaken the fabric of a city.
• Acute Shocks: sudden, sharp events that threaten a city
• Outline how one urban pollution reduction policy has been implemented. [4 marks]

  • London has been declared an Air Quality Management Area (1).
  • This was needed as in 2015 it had the highest levels of NO2 in Europe (1)(d).
  • As part of this policy they issue fines for vehicle engine idling in the Square Mile (1).
  • London has also adopted zero-emission buses and taxis to reduce levels of pollutants (1)
• Outline the role that world cities play in the global economy. [4 marks]

  • World cities are those that have the greatest influence on a global scale (1).
  • For example, London is an Alpha ++ city due to it being a global financial centre (1).
  • World cities play a critical role in the well-being of the world economy – only 100 cities accounting for 30% of the global economy (1).
  • They have a disproportionate role in the global economy (1)(d).
• Explain why thunderstorms are common in urban areas. [4 marks]

  • Thunderstorms form in hot humid air and are characterised by heavy precipitation, thunder and lightning. They are produced by rapid convectional uplift under conditions of extreme instability (1).
  • Urban convection caused by the urban heat island effect (1)
  • is most powerful in summer around late afternoon and early evening (1) (d).
  • The more intense the urban heating, the more violent the storm (1).
• The changes in urban policies and regeneration in Britain since 1979 and its issues:

  • Deindustrialisation and unemployment
  • Housing
  • Devolution
  • Privatisation and marketisation
  • Gentrification and social exclusion
  • Sustainability and climate change
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Deindustrialisation and Unemployment:

  • Many British cities experienced a decline in traditional industries, resulting in high levels of unemployment and poverty in urban areas
  • This has led to a need for urban regeneration and economic development
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Housing:

  • There has been a shortage of affordable housing in many urban areas (i.e. London + the South East)
  • This has led to a rise in homelessness and overcrowding, as well as a need for policies to increase the availability of affordable housing
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Devolution:

  • The Labour Government introduced devolution to Scotland, Wales and Northern Island in the late 1990s
  • This gave these regions greater autonomy over their own governance
  • This has led to increased regional diversity in urban policies and regeneration
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Privatisation + Marketisation:

  • The Conservative Government of the 1980s and 1990s implemented policies of privatisation and marketisation
  • This resulted in the transfer of public assets and services to the private sector
  • This has led to significant implications for urban policy, particularly in areas such as housing, transportation and infrastructure
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Gentrification and Social Exclusion:

  • In many urban areas, the process of gentrification has led to the displacement of lower income residents and the concentration of poverty in certain areas
  • This has led to concerns about social exclusion and the need for more inclusive urban policies
• Urban Policy since 1979 - Sustainability and Climate Change:

  • In recent years, there has been a growing focus on sustainability and climate change in urban policy and regeneration
  • This has led to policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, improving energy efficiency and increasing the use of renewable sources
• Urban Heat Island (UHI): A term used to describe the higher temperatures in urban areas compared to surrounding rural areas.
• Albedo: the ability of a surface to reflect sunlight
• Light coloured surfaces have a high albedo as they reflect more sunlight than dark coloured surfaces
• Reasons for differences in temperature:

  • Building materials (i.e. concrete) absorb large amounts of heat during the day
  • This heat is stored as energy and is released at night (making the UHI more intense at night)
  • Multi-storey buildings and buildings with large windows reflect large amounts of heat downwards
  • Anthropogenic heat is generated from industry, vehicles and buildings (via air conditioning, for example)
• Anthropogenic: changes to the environment caused or influenced by human activity. This can be direct or indirect.
• The Impacts of UHIs:

  • London experienced 600 heat related deaths in August, 2003
  • It was up to 9°C warmer than in the surrounding rural areas
  • Mortality is linked to warm night time temperatures as well as age, sex, level of deprivation, etc.
• Global Shift: The global shift is the movement of manufacturing, or the economic centre of gravity, to recently industrialising countries
• Curvilinear: A line that is curved in a circular motion, such as a spiral or a spirometer.