ch.7

• memory - a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
• recall - retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learnt at an earlier time
• recognition - identifying items previously learned
• relearning - assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
• Hermann Ebbinghaus - discovered the more time we spend learning information, the more we retain it
• information processing model - human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns
• 3 stages of memory

  1. encoding
  2. storage
  3. retrieval
• encoding - modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system
• 3 types of encoding

  • semantic
  • acoustic
  • visual
• semantic encoding - encodes meanings and meanings of words
• acoustic encoding - encodes sound especially sound of words
• visual encoding - encodes picture images
• parallel processing - processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
• connectionism - views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
• 3 stages of memory of storing material

  • sensory memory
  • working (short term) memory
  • long term memory
• Atkinson and Shiffrin - proposed the multi-store model
• the more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has aka long term potentiation (LTP)
• sensory memory - immediate, very brief recording of sensory information activated by the five senses
• Sperling's test - Sperling flashed a group of letters for 1/20 of a second, people could only recall about half of the letters; when signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they should do so with near perfect accuracy
• short term memory - holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
• long term memory - relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
• working memory - short term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information
• explicit memory - facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare; aka declarative memory; goes through the hippocampus
• effortful processing - encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• automatic processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information such as word meanings
• implicit memory - retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; aka nondeclarative memory; goes through cerebellum
• iconic memory - momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
• echoic memory - momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
• George Miller - proposed that we can store about 7 pieces in our short term memory
• chunking - organizing items into familiar, manageable by units; often occurs automatically
• mnemonics - memory aids; techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
• spacing effect - tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
• testing effect - enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading information
• shallow processing - encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
• deep processing - encoding semantically based on the meaning of words and tends to yield the best retention
• semantic memory - explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
• episodic memory - explicit memory of personally experienced events
• memory consolidation - neural storage of a long term memory
• flashbulb memory - a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
• Eric Kandel and James Schwartz - discovered the neural basis of learning and LTP by observing changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal