Chapter 15 - Challenges to the Peace Settlement

• What happened in November 1918?

  The Republican Party became the majority party in the US Congress
• What happened on 10th January 1920?

  League of Nations commenced business
• What happened in March 1920?

  US senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or allow the USA to join the League of Nations
• What happened in January 1921?

  British and French troops occupied parts of Germany after Germany refused to pay reparations
• What happened in September 1923?

  Ataturk repudiated the Treaty of Sevres
• Why did isolationism increase in popularity in America?

  It was as a result of its war experience
• How were Wilson's 14 points received in America?

  • They were generally very popular
  • Some, especially Republicans, were dubious about the idea of a League of Nations
  • Businessmen worried about the impact of free trade, favouring protectionism as the economic embodiment of isolationism
• How did political developments in the immediate aftermath of the war help to secure rejection of the TOV and LON by the US Senate?

  - At the very end of the war, the USA held midterm elections- These resulted in the Republican Party gaining the majority of seats in the Congress- Not only was Wilson a Democrat, but the Republicans promoted themselves as champions of isolationism, making his ideals appear increasingly at odds with American public opinion- The 66th Congress commenced in March 1919, just as Wilson was negotiating the TOV in Europe
• What can it mean for a Democrat President if Republicans win the majority in Congress in a midterm election (or vice versa)?

  The President will find it much more difficult to gain legislative support for his policies (as was experienced by Wilson)
• What did Wilson's 6 month absence mean for his popularity in America?

  • It left something of a power vacuum in Washington just as America was adjusting to the new conditions of peacetime after 20 months of war
  • The USA was experiencing a post-war slump as industries re-adjusted their output away from munitions and immigration was of increasing concern to many Americans
  • The President, preoccupied with international affairs, saw his earlier popularity drain away
  • To reclaim his popularity, the TOV would have to gain strong approval from many Americans
• Why were American businessmen and Republicans deeply uncomfortable with the role the US would be assigned if they joined the LON?

  • By 1919 the USA was the most influential and economically powerful nation in the world
  • Wilson's opponents therefore feared the USA would be relied upon more than others to uphold the TOV and settle international disputes, thereby indefinitely committing itself to troop deployment and long term involvement in European affairs
  • Though the USA lost far fewer men than their European allies, the conflict was a remote one and many ordinary Americans did not feel that even a small sacrifice was worthwhile
• Describe American opposition to the LON

  • LON reliant on US support but Wilson found American attitudes towards it to be mixed in 1919
  • Lukewarm consensus that a multinational body was necessary, more for peace and stability of Europe than any other reason, but strong opposition to some aspects of covenant
  • Article X was concerning to Republicans
  • More conspiratorial Americans said LON = globalist "new world order" - supranational government overriding sovereignty and national interests of the US
• How did Wilson's popularity and power decline further after the TOV?

  • Though there was bitter discontent with the treaty, Wilson went on a speaking tour of the US in autumn 1919 to vigorously defend the settlement
  • Already overworked in Europe, this proved too much for his health and he suffered a stroke in September 1919, further diminishing his capacity to lead the country
  • After initially proposing to attach their own conditions to the TOV, in March 1920 the Senate refused to ratify it and refused to allow the USA to become a member of the LON
• What is meant by the term "ratify"?

  To give the final recognition to a treaty following its signature by the parties involved
• Where did the idea of "no entangling alliances" come from?

  President Thomas Jefferson's inaugural speech in 1801 - promised "honest friendship with all nations - entangling alliances with none"
• Who was Wilson succeeded by?

  The Republican Warren Harding
• What did Harding's government extend the policy of isolationism to?

  • Immigration (banned Asian immigration and introduced quotas to limit the number of southern and eastern European immigrants)
  • The economy
• How did Harding create economic isolation?

  • Tariffs were introduced/increased to drive up the cost of foreign imports in order to protect domestic markets
  • The USA's trading partners responded with "retaliatory tariffs" which in turn made American imports to their countries more expensive
  • The result was a decline in global trade, which made international cooperation less important to countries' economies
• What method of international relations had the LON hoped to foster?

  Internationalism - a very different approach to how foreign affairs had been conducted previously and to how crises and disputes had been resolved before 1914
• What did the British diplomat Lord Robert Cecil call the LON?

  a great experiment
• When did Austria and Bulgaria join the League of Nations?

  December 1920
• When did Hungary join the League of Nations?

  September 1922
• When did Germany join the League of Nations?

  September 1926
• What was the final Treaty of Versailles like?

  • After 6 months of negotiations, delegates to Paris reached awkward compromises fashioned into a Treaty
  • Formally signed in Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles 28th June 1919
  • Few delegates were fully happy, with Germany being the most unhappy, whose delegates had been excluded until May 1919, after which attendance was a formality so they could be lectured about what had been declared on their behalf
  • Article 231 was of greatest concern to Berlin - "war guilt clause"
  • Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war - drafted by American legal experts who said Germany could only be held liable for reparations if they admitted starting the war
• What was the fate of Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?

  - Territorial and economic penalties were extensive- Germany lost 13% land, 6 mil Germans were made citizens of other nations and 15% German agricultural land and 10% industry was given to France- Germany's merchant fleet mostly went to Britain, lost colonial possessions, Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, the Rhineland was demilitarised and occupied and Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark- Germany was forbidden from political or economic union with Austria and Posen and West Prussia went to Poland, cutting East Prussia off from Germany- The army was cut to 100,000 men, forbidden from tanks, warplanes and heavy artillery, the navy cut to 15,000 personnel, only allowed 6 battleships and no subs- Germany indefinitely excluded from LON
• How did France react to the TOV?

  • Did not find satisfaction
  • Not immediately ratified - subject to 6 weeks of fierce debate in the Chamber of Deputies- Brought to the surface some of the sharpest divisions in French politics- Socialists argued the Treaty was too harsh
  • Germany was now democratic and France should cooperate
  • Centre and right wing pointed out that it contained very few assurances against future German aggression
  • Germany was now surrounded by small, weak states and Clemenceau had failed to secure the Rhineland as a buffer state- General Foch - the treaty was "not peace but an armistice for 20 years"
  • Eventually ratified by the French but Clemenceau's popularity had greatly diminished - he was defeated in the 1920 presidential election
• How did Britain react to the TOV?

  • Lloyd George expressed concerns over the TOV even before the Germans signed in June 1919- German delegation's rebuttal to the terms won Lloyd George's admiration
  • He tried to convince Wilson and Clemenceau to reconsider key terms but they refused
  • However, he was greeted as a hero by the British public upon his return from France in summer 1919- Issue of reparations most criticised by Britain
  • Lloyd George's negotiation of Britain's share was complicated by the fact that he owed £1 billion to America
  • The British were convinced that the reparations on Germany would cause long-term economic misery for Germans who now had a democratic gov not responsible for causing the war
  • A failed German economy would disadvantage Britain - it would have a negative impact on British trade and could cause a communist revolution
• Who were the Council of Four?

  Comprised the Big three (Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George) and Orlando of Italy
• What was Germany's initial reaction to the TOV?

  • When the German delegation was shown the terms, Count Brockdorff-Rantzau made a defiant speech against it
  • When the Allies sent a final ultimatum to the Germans on 16th June, the gov resigned in protest and the Chancellor Scheidemann announced "May the hand wither that signs this treaty"
  • The ultimatum was a threat of renewal of conflict and immediate resumption of the naval blockade if the Treaty was not signed
  • A new gov was formed with Gustav Bauer as Chancellor and a Reichstag vote was held on the peace settlement
  • 237 voted in favour, 138 voted against and 5 refused to vote
• What was the public opinion about the TOV in Germany?

  • The treatment under the TOV was not the pure reason for Hitler's 1933 rise to power, but the German gov's acceptance of the terms created a toxic feeling of betrayal among many
  • The signing was an early and significant blow to the rep of the Weimar gov - the treaty was seen as a "diktat" as the leaders had no say in it
  • Returning troops felt that Germany had been making significant gains in autumn 1918 and so felt a sense of deep betrayal - as Germany had not been defeated and there had been no allied invasion, the treaty was seen as a "stab in the back"
• What is meant by the term "November Criminals"?

  • Extreme right-wing groups in Germany began propaganda campaigns in the aftermath of the armistice and TOV
  • Claimed that soldiers of WW1 had been betrayed by the gov
  • Politicians involved in signing the armistice were branded "November Criminals", a slogan adopted by Hitler in the 1920s
  • As Hitler's popularity grew, so did the slogan - it was among the factors that eroded the credibility of the Weimar Republic
• Why did Germans feel punished under the Treaty of Versailles (TOV)?

  They felt the war guilt clause was unfair
• How did the war guilt clause affect German pride?

  It dented their pride and caused resentment
• What was Germany's view on responsibility for starting the war?

  They believed Russia was equally responsible
• What military restrictions were imposed on Germany?

  They left Germany vulnerable to invasion
• What concerns did Germans have about those living under foreign rule?

  They feared persecution by new governments
• What did right-wing Germans believe regarding those under foreign rule?

  They believed they should return to German jurisdiction
• What was the most unpalatable element of the TOV for Germans?

  Reparations were the most unpalatable element
• How did Germans perceive the impact of reparations on their families?

  They claimed it aimed to starve mothers and children
• What action did the Weimar government take regarding reparations?

  They petitioned to renegotiate the payment terms