2.6 cell division, diversity, and organisation

• The role of mitosis and the cell cycle is to produce identical daughter cells for growth and asexual reproduction of cells. All the cells produced by mitosis are genetically identical therefore mitosis does not give rise to genetic variation.
• Mitosis – mitosis is a form of cell division that produces identical cells, there are four stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
• Cytokinesis – during cytokinesis the parent and replicated organelles move to opposite sides of the cell and the cytoplasm divides thus producing two daughter cells
• Interphase – during this stage the cell grows and then prepares to divide – chromosomes and some organelles are replicated, chromosomes also begin to condense
• mitosis

  During prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks down and subsequently disappears. The chromosomes condense and the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell for the purpose of spindle formation.

  During metaphase, the chromosomes move to the equator and attach to the spindle fibres via centromeres. In the anaphase stage, the sister chromatids are separated.

  During telophase, the nuclear envelope reforms, creating two daughter cells. The spindle is broken down and subsequently disappears. The chromosomes uncoil.
• Meiosis is a form of cell division that gives rise to genetic variation. The main role of meiosis is production of haploid gametes as cells produced by meiosis have half the number of chromosomes. Meiosis produces genetically different cells
• Meiosis produces genetically different cells, genetic variation is achieved through:


  • Crossing over of chromatids where pairs of chromosomes line up and exchange some of their genetic material

  • Independent assortment of chromosomes – there are various combinations of chromosome arrangement
• meiosis is a two phase process in which four haploid gametes are generated from a diploid cell. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate therefore there is only one chromosome of every pair per gamete, whereas in meiosis II the sister chromatids separate.
• Prophase I closely resembles the prophase stage of mitosis, with the exception of synapsis and crossing over of homologous chromosomes (at chiasmata) which allow the genetic exchange to occur.

  Metaphase I is when each pair of bivalents align at the equator. The position of each bivalent is random (Random assortment) and this contributes to genetic variation.

  During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate.

  During telophase I the nuclear envelope reforms around haploid nuclei containing half the number of chromosomes.
• During meiosis II composed of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II, another round of cell division occurs, leading to formation of four haploid daughter cells, containing single chromosomes. It is during Anaphase II that the centromeres split separating chromatids.
• • Xylem- transport water and minerals as well as provide structural support. They are long cylinders made of dead tissue with open ends. Xylem vessels are thickened with a tough substance called lignin. They consist of parenchyma, fibres and vessels and are produced by meristem cells which produce smaller cells that elongate.
• • Phloem - tubes made of living cells which are involved in translocation which is the movement of food substances and nutrients from leaves to storage organs and growing plants of the plant. The meristem tissue produces cells that elongate and line up end-to-end to form a long tube. Their ends do not break down completely but produce perforated structures known as sieve plates. Metabolically active companion cells are located next to sieve plates and are involved in mediating the movement of photosynthesis products upwards and downwards in the tubes.
• • Epithelial – sheet of cells that serves as a lining/cover a surface. There are two types, squamous which are smooth, flat and very thin, fitting closely together to create a smooth surface, such as the lining of blood vessels and cheeks. Whereas ciliated epithelium is composed of column shaped cells containing cilia which form the lining of structures such as trachea and bronchi. The cilia move together to move the mucus produced by goblet cells along. Ciliated epithelium is also found in the oviducts.
• • Connective – involved in providing support and holding various structures together, examples include cartilage and bone
• • Muscle – specialised for movement through contraction
• • Nervous – specialised for impulse conduction
• Sperm cells – male gametes, made in the testes throughout a man’s life, they are adapted to reach, penetrate and fertilise the ovum i.e. the female gamete
• • Palisade cells – most basic plant cell type, contain many chloroplasts and are specialised for photosynthesis
• • Root hair cells – specialised epidermal cells found in close proximity to root tips. They have thin and long extensions which serve for the purpose of increasing surface area and maximising the contact with water which contains essential mineral ions which are absorbed through the roots. They are short-lived and are constantly produced in the root tip.
• • Guard cells – found in pairs in the epidermis of leaves and are involved in controlling the opening and closing of stomata. Guard cells contain chloroplasts whereas epidermal cells do not. They respond to water influx which causes them to alter their shape, causing stoma to open.
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells which are genetically identical and have the ability to develop into any of the various kinds of cells.
• Stem cells have various uses in research and medicine, for instance repair of damaged tissues, treatment of neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s as well as studying development. The process by which a cell specialised to carry out a particular function is known as differentiation.
• Stem cells can be found in the bone marrow where they differentiate into erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils (white blood cells). The role of erythrocytes is transporting oxygen in the blood. They are relatively short lived as they are constantly destroyed and created. Whereas the neutrophils are involved in attacking and destroying foreign microorganisms in the process of phagocytosis