Learning Theories

• Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is formed between a neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
• Classical conditioning is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist
• John Watson proposed that classical conditioning could explain all aspects of human psychology
• If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that triggers an unconditioned response (UR), the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) triggering a conditioned response (CR)
• Watson denied the existence of the mind or consciousness and believed individual differences in behavior were due to different learning experiences
• There are three stages of classical conditioning: Before Conditioning, During Conditioning, and After Conditioning
• Stage 1: Before Conditioning involves the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) producing an unconditioned response (UCR)
• Stage 2: During Conditioning involves a neutral stimulus (NS) becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS) by being associated with the unconditioned stimulus
• Stage 3: After Conditioning results in the conditioned stimulus (CS) being associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR)
• Pavlov's Dogs experiment demonstrated classical conditioning with dogs salivating in response to a bell tone
• Watson & Rayner applied classical conditioning to human behavior in the case of Little Albert to explain the development of phobias
• Panic disorder often involves classical conditioning where an initial panic attack serves as an unconditioned stimulus (US) paired with neutral stimuli (CS) to trigger anxiety and panic reactions
• Classical conditioning processes in panic disorder often occur outside of conscious awareness
• Cue reactivity theory suggests that people associate situations/places with the rewarding effects of addiction
• Addiction Cue reactivity theory:

  • People associate situations/places with the rewarding effects of nicotine
  • Cues can trigger a feeling of craving
  • Prolonged use of nicotine creates an association between cues and smoking based on classical conditioning
• Nicotine in classical conditioning:

  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is nicotine
  • Pleasure from increased dopamine levels is the unconditioned response (UCR)
  • Neutral stimuli become conditioned stimuli (CS) through repeated pairings
• Withdrawal symptoms:

  • Brain lowers dopamine levels if nicotine is not received
  • Individual is more likely to feel the need to smoke in the presence of cues associated with nicotine use
• Classroom implications of classical conditioning:

  • Teachers should associate positive emotional experiences with learning
  • Negative emotional experiences can lead to bad results like school phobia
  • Students may dislike certain subjects due to negative experiences like humiliation or punishment
• Principles of Classical Conditioning:

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not evoke a response until paired with the unconditioned stimulus
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Causes a natural and automatic response without prior conditioning
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Innate response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Substitute stimulus that triggers the same response as an unconditioned stimulus
  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the previously neutral stimulus
• Acquisition:

  • Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
  • Organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction:

  • Gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
  • Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Return of a conditioned response in a weaker form after a period of time following extinction
  • Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone
• Generalization:

  • Tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus
• Discrimination:

  • Process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one
• Higher-Order Conditioning:

  • Pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned stimulus
  • Demonstrates how a conditioned stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus
• Operant conditioning was discovered by B.F. Skinner in the mid-20th century
• Skinner is regarded as the father of operant conditioning
• Operant conditioning involves the mechanism of reward and punishment for behaviors
• Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are reinforced, while those followed by negative outcomes are discouraged
• Behavior is influenced by its consequences in operant conditioning
• Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished occurs less frequently
• Skinner believed that studying observable behavior is more productive than studying internal mental events
• Skinner's work was based on Thorndike's Law of Effect
• According to the Law of Effect, behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated
• Skinner introduced the term "Reinforcement" into the Law of Effect
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated, while behavior not reinforced tends to die out
• Skinner conducted experiments using animals in a "Skinner Box" to study operant conditioning
• A Skinner Box is a device used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame
• Skinner identified three types of responses that can follow behavior: Neutral operants, Reinforcers, and Punishers
• Reinforcers increase the probability of a behavior being repeated, while punishers decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated