geography

• Cities are defined urban areas within a country
• Characteristics of cities:

  • Large population size
  • High population density
  • Built-up area
  • Range of functions
• Large population size:

  • Cities have a large population size compared to other locations in the country
• High population density:

  • Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of land
  • Population density = number of people living in an area / land area
• Built-up area:

  • Land surface mostly covered by buildings and concrete grounds
  • Extensive infrastructure to provide basic services like water, electricity, sanitation, telecommunications, and transport
• Range of functions:

  • Cities have a large range of functions including administrative, commercial, educational, and economic functions
• Relationship between cities and rural areas:

  • Rural areas have lower population size and density compared to cities
  • Cities have more opportunities and resources compared to rural areas
• Rural-urban migration:

  • People originally from rural areas move to cities for better opportunities and resources
• Push factors:

  • Reasons that make migrants want to leave rural areas
  • E.g. working in harsh conditions, low pay
• Pull factors:

  • Reasons that attract migrants to cities
  • E.g. better education opportunities, higher pay
• Education and employment:

  • Education provides knowledge and skills for employment
  • Employment allows individuals to engage in paid work and contribute to the economy
• Technological innovation:

  • Skilled individuals in cities innovate and create new products or services
• Shading:

  • Problem: No shelter from the sun and rain
  • Solution: Implement sheltered bus stops and walkways
• Transport:

  • Problem: Excessive heat production
  • Solution: Encourage the use of public transport, cycling, and walking
• Challenges faced by people living in cities:

  • Increased environmental pollution
  • Water pollution
  • Air pollution
  • Competition for natural resources
• Increased environmental pollution:

  • High concentration of people, businesses, and transport networks lead to the release of contaminants affecting human health
• Water pollution:

  • Improper waste management leads to industrial waste being disposed of directly into water bodies
• Air pollution:

  • Burning of coal, high vehicle volume, and traffic emissions contribute to air pollution
• Competition for natural resources:

  • Cities require large amounts of resources for infrastructure and industrial use, leading to competition and limited resources
• Management of physical environment:

  • Cities need to regulate natural resource use and minimize negative environmental impacts
• Management of hazards:

  • Hazards like fires, oil spills, and industrial accidents negatively impact people and the environment
  • Human-induced hazards arise from human actions or inaction
• Improve quality of life:

  • Provide safe housing
  • Offer a variety of transportation methods
  • Consider the needs of different groups
• Housing:

  • Structures built to shelter people from the elements
• Transportation methods:

  • Ways for people and goods to move around the city
  • Buses have larger capacity and reduce congestion
• Considering the needs of different people:

  • Implementing wider routes and tactile warnings for visually impaired individuals
• Provision of goods and services

  Cities have limited space, rural farmers rear animals and grow crops to sell them at markets in the cities. Rural inhabitants can also benefit from amenities available in cities, like hospitals for advanced treatment and certain goods 
• Housing


  Structures or buildings developed to shelter people from the elements
• Types of housing


  • High rise
  • Low rise
• High rise


  • Housing more than 6 stories and require the use of lifts
  • Comprises of apartments and shared facilities
• Low rise


  • Housing lesser than 6 stories
  • Comprise of detached houses, semi-detached houses, terraces and shophouses
• Types of housing


  • Formal housing
  • Informal housing
• Formal housing


  • Legally built housing
  • Provided by government housing programmes or private developers
• Formal housing


  • Built by government or private developers
  • Public housing managed by Housing Development Board
  • Build flats and towns and their supporting amenities (hawker centres and roads)
• Formal housing


  • Legal right to occupy land
  • Easy access to basic services (water, electricity, sanitation)
• Access to basic services

  -infrastructure

  • Water disposal system
  • Underground water pipes
  • Electrical substations
  • Power line
  • Sewage pipes
  • Transport networks
  • Park connectors
  • Wifi system
• Formal housing

  • High quality building materials (concrete, metal or hard wood)
• Informal housing

  • Illegally or unlawfully built housing
  • Built by individuals unable to access formal housing
• Informal housing


  • Self-built squatter settlements
  • Typically built in an unplanned fashion
  • Constructed from repurposed zinc sheets and recycled lumber
  • Houses at risk of collapsing, flooding or catching fire
• Informal housing

  • No legal right to occupy land
  • Lack of access to basic services
• Access to basic services

  basic services

  -easy access to water and electricity 

  –provision of sanitation services 

  -water disposal system