non experimental

• What is 'quantitative data'?

  Data in the form of numbers and statistics. It can be more easily analysed in graphs and tables and tends to come from studies with large samples
• What is 'qualitative data'?

  Data that is descriptive, e.g. pictures or words, rather than numbers. It can be more difficult to analyse and tends to come from studies with small samples because of the depth required.
• Explain one difference between qualitative and quantitative data.

  Quantitative data is numerical whereas qualitative data is non-numerical.
• What is 'primary data'?

  Data the researcher has gathered themselves for a specific piece of research. This can be expensive and time-consuming to gather.
• What is 'secondary data'?

  Data a researcher uses that was gathered previously, perhaps by different researchers, for a different purpose. This can be cheaper and quicker to gather as it already exists.
• Explain one difference between primary and secondary data.

  Primary data is collected by the researcher themselves, whereas secondary data has been collected by someone else previously.
• Describe the features of a laboratory experiment.

  Conducted under controlled conditions with extraneous variables tightly controlled. The researcher directly manipulates the IV. Participants are aware they are being studied.
• Explain one strength of using a laboratory experiment.

  High control over extraneous vairables means findings are high in internal validity (being sure that only the IV has affected the DV) plus use of standardised procedures means the research can be replicated to check the reliability / consistency of findings.
• Explain one weakness of using a laboratory experiment.

  Knowing they are being studied, participants may display demand characteristics. Also, the artifical lab environment is usually much different from real life settings, so findings may lack ecological validity.
• Describe the features of a field experiment.

  Carried out in natural settings, the researcher directly manipulates the IV. Participants usually unaware they are being studied.
• Explain one strength of using a field experiment.


  Being conducted in the natural setting means findings are high in ecological valdidity.
• Explain one weakness of using a field experiment.

  In the natural setting, it is difficult to control extraneous variables, so findings might lack internal validity in comparison to lab experiments. Also, unaware they are being studied, participants are often unable to provide informed consent.
• Describe the features of a natural experiment.

  People's behaviour is studied in the real-life setting. The researcher DOES NOT manipulate the IV; rather, it is naturally occuring.
• Explain one strength of using a natural experiment.

  Natural experiments posses high levels of ecological validity, being conducted in the natural environment. Also, they allow psychologists to study areas which it may have been unethical for them to create or manipulate themselves.
• Explain one weakness of using a natural experiment.

  There is no control over extraneous variables, so findings may lack internal validity. Also, the opportunity to carry out a natural experiment may occur only very rarely.
• Describe the features of a structured interview.

  Qs are decided in advance. They are asked in the same order for all participants. They are suitable for large-scale studies to get information from lots of respondents.
• Explain one strength and one weakness of using a structured interview.

  Strengths: lots of data can be gathered relatively quickly. Interviewers require little training. Using the same Qs, in the same order, the interviews can be repeated, so findings can be checked for consistency (reliability). Weaknesses: participants are not able to respond freely - they have to answer only the pre-determined Qs. This can reduce the usefulness and the validity of the findings.
• Describe the features of an unstructured interview.

  Only the broad topic is decided in advance. Suitable for gathering in-depth information from small groups of respondents.
• Explain one strength and one weakness of using an unstructured interview.

  Strenghts: without set questions, participants can justify their answers in their own words, which can improve the detail and validity of findings. Weaknesses: more time consuming / costly. Interviewers require lots of training. Impossible to replicate as the Qs are different each time.
• Describe the features of a semi-structured interview.

  Qs mostly decided in advance but can be supplemented with additional questions which the interviewer thinks are important at the time.
• Explain what is meant by a 'social desirability bias'.

  Occurs when a respondent may answer a question in a way that is socially acceptable.
• Explain what is meant by 'interviewer effects.

  When the behaviour or attitude of the interviewer impacts the way a respondent answers questions.
• What is an 'open question' and what type of data does this produce?

  Does not have pre-set responses and people can answer however they like and in detail. Produces qualitative data.
• What is a 'closed question' and what type of data does this produce?

  Has a pre-set list of answers that a respondent can chose from (e.g. yes/no). Produces quantitative data as answers can be tallied up.
• Describe two strengths of using a questionnaire.

  Relatively inexpensive, always ethical as people give their informed consent when filling them in, respondents' answers cannot be influenced by the researcher (as the research is usually not present), if quantitative data is produced, this can be easily compared, and if qualitative data is produced, this can give researchers and deep understanding of issues being investigated.
• Describe two weaknesses of using a questionnaire.

  Response rates are often low, meaning many people choose not to complete questionnaires - this creates problems when trying to generalise fidings to a wider population, if the sample turns out to be very small. The answers to closed questions can lack depth, whereas the answers to open questions have to be subjectively interpreted by researchers (different researchers might interpret them differently, meaning findings might lack reliability).
• What does a correlation study involve?

  An investigation into the relationship between two variables (co-variables). The findigns are usually displayed in a scattergram.
• What are the co-variables in a correlation study?

  The two variables between which we are looking to see if a relationship exists.
• Describe the three different types of correlations that could exist between co-variables.

  Positive correlation (as one variable increases or decreases, the other variable moves in the same direction. Negative correlation (as one variable increases or decreases, the other variable moves in the opposite direction). Zero correlation (no relationship between the co-variables).
• What is a correlation coefficient?

  A number, between -1 and +1 which represents the type of relationship between variables (positive, negative or zero).
• Explain one strength of correlation studies.

  Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely studied. There is no harm or changes being made to the lives of participants.
• Explain one weakness of correlation studies.

  Not possible to establish a cause and effect relationship between the co‐variables (ie. cannot be claimed that one variable directly influences the other). This is because there is no control over extraneous variables, meaning there is a severe lack of internal validity.
• Who, or what, is usually the focus of a 'case study'?

  A single individual or small group of people.
• Case studies are an example of a 'qualitative research method'. What type of data does this mean is usually gathered?

  In-depth, qualitative data.
• Why do case study findings often lack population validity?

  Individuals or small groups, who are the focus of a case study, are unique, so are unlikely to be representative of a wider population.
• Why is meant by 'subjectivity' and why is this a problem with the case study method?

  Subjectivity refers to when answers or conclusions are based on personal opinions, which change from person to person. The findings of case studies can be criticised for being subjective because usually a single researcher is responsible for interpreting the qualitative data that has been gathered.
• What's the main difference between naturalistic and controlled observations?

  Naturalistic observations are carried out in natural / real-life settings. Controlled observations are carried out under artificial, controlled conditions (such as a lab setting).
• What's the main difference between covert and overt observations?

  In covert observations, participants are unaware they are being studied. In overt observations, they are aware.
• What's the main difference between participant and non-participant observations?


  In participant observations, the observer joins in with the activities of the group. In non-participant observations, they hang back and remain separate from the group.
• Which type of observation produces findings that are more ecologically valid? Why?

  Naturalistic observations - they are carried out in natural, real-life settings.