caregiver-infant interactions

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What is attachment ?
attachment is a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop.
characteristics of attachment
proximity= staying close to the attachment figure
separation distress (anxiety)= anxiety when separated from the attachment figure.
Secure-base behaviour= infants regularly return to the attachment figure while playing.
Reciprocity
It is a two-way or mutual interaction between caregiver and child. The mother and child are involved in a two-way communication. It involves turn taking e.g. a mother smiles and her baby smiles back.
Alert phases
Babies have periodic 'alert phases' in which they signal (making eye contact) that they are ready for a spell of interaction. Mothers pick up on this around 2/3 of the time but this varies according to skill and external factors such as stress.
from around 3 months this interaction becomes increasingly frequent and involves both mother and baby paying close attention to each others verbal signals and facial expressions.
active involvement
traditional views of childhood have portrayed babies in a passive role, receiving care from an adult. Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions and they appear to take turns doing so.
Brazelton et al (1975) described this interaction as a 'dance' where each respond to the other.
interactional synchrony
it is when two people carry out the same action simultaneously- the caregiver and babys actions and emotions mirror each other e.g. a baby moves her head in time with her mother.
interactional synchrony studies
Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
filmed 2 week old babies interactions with an adult, making facial expressions.
babies mirrored the adults
mimicking is a feature of attachment
Isabella et al (1989)
30 mother baby pairs observed and assessed for interactional synchrony and quality of attachment.
high levels of synchrony= better quality mother-baby attachment
Murray and Travarthen (1985)
used frozen face technique to test the importance of interactional synchrony to see if it was a deliberate play by the child.
A mother engaged with the child and suddenly stops responding. The child shows serious distress, turns away and cries.
Often, they would make deliberate and extreme attempts to lure mum back into interaction.
evaluation of features of attachment 1
P interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory. This means that other activity, that might actually distract a baby, can be controlled.
E using films means observations can be recorded and analysed later. It is unlikely that researchers will miss seeing key behaviours
E filming interactions also means more than one observer can record the data and establish inter-rater reliability of observations. Babies do not know they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to the observation (this is a problem for overt observations)
L data collected therefore should have good reliability and validity.
evaluation of features of attachment 2
P One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interaction is that it is hard to interpret a baby’s behaviour.
E Young babies lack co-ordination, and they are immobile. The movements being observed are just small hand movements or subtle changes in expression.
E It is difficult to be sure, for example, whether a baby is smiling or just passing wind. It is also difficult to determine what is taking place from the baby’s perspective. E.g., we don’t know if a hand movement is random or triggered by something the caregiver has done.
L This means we cannot be certain that the behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have special meaning.
evaluation of features of attachment 3
P A limitation is that simply observing behaviour does not tell us its developmental importance.
E Feldman (2012) points out ideas like synchrony simply give names to patterns of observable caregiver and baby behaviours.
E These can be reliably observed but may not be useful in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of these behaviours.
L This means we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity and synchrony are important for a child’s development.
However, research does suggest early interactions are important, e.g., Isabella et al (1989) found a relationship between increased interactional synchrony and good quality attachment. Heinmann (1989) showed that infants who demonstrate a lot of imitation from birth onwards have been found to have a better quality of relationship at 3 months.
evaluation of features of attachment 4
P The research into infant caregiver interactions is socially sensitive – it has an impact on impact on working mothers and economic implications. Research into infant caregiver interaction has contributed to understanding the importance of care-giver infant interactions.
E Research into early caregiver-infant interactions has practical applications in parenting skills training.
E Crotwell et al (2013) found that a 10-minute Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) improved interactional synchrony in 20 low-income mothers and their pre-school children.
L On the other hand, research into caregiver-infant interaction is socially sensitive because it can be used to argue that when a mother returns to work too soon after having a baby this may risk damaging the baby’s development.
Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment-1
Asocial stage
birth-8 weeks
infant shows similar responses to objects and people
towards end of this stage they display a preference for faces/eyes.
Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment-2
indiscriminate attachment stage
2-7/8 months
shows preference for human company over non-human company.
can distinguish between different people
are comforted indiscriminately and dont show stranger anxiety
Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment-3
specific attachment stage
7/8-12 months
has preference for one caregiver
displays separation and stranger anxiety
looks for particular person for security and protection
shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by primary caregiver
Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment-4
multiple attachments stage
12 months onwards
attachment displayed towards several people (siblings parents etc) sometimes known as secondary attachments
form in first month after primary attachment which develop depending on social circle the infant is exposed to
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) Glasgow infants- supporting stages of attachment.
60 babies (31 boys and 29 girls) from w/c families in Glasgow were visited by the researchers in their homes every month for the 1st year and at 18 months.
researchers asked the mothers questions about the protests their babies showed in 7 everyday separations, e.g., an adult leaving the room (measures separation anxiety) and the babies’ response to unfamiliar people (stranger anxiety).
They found most babies attached to their mother first and within a few weeks or months formed secondary attachments to other family members.
Around 75% of infants formed an attachment with the father by 18 months (protested when their fathers walked away –sign of attachment).
By 18 months most infants have formed multiple attachments
Sensitive responsiveness
the results of the Glasgow infants study (Schaffer and Emerson) indicated that attachments were most likely to form with those who responded sensitively to the babys signals, not the person they spent more time with.
securely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their demands and interacted with their child. Infants who were weakly attached had mothers who failed to interact. This would suggest that being sensitive and responsive (including playing and communicating an infant) is more instrumental in attachment development than physical care.
stages of attachment evaluation 1
P One strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s research is that it has good external validity
E Most of the observations (though not stranger anxiety) were made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to the researchers. The alternative would have been to have researchers present to record observations. This might have distracted the babies or made them feel more anxious. This means it is highly likely that participants behaved naturally while being observed.
E Mothers are unlikely to be objective observers – they might be biased in what they notice/report, e.g., they might not have noticed their baby showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it.
L The research has good external validity.
stages of attachment evaluation 2
p poor evidence for asocial stage
E One limitation of Schaffer and Emerson’s stages is the validity of the measures they used to assess attachment in the asocial stage.
E Young babies have poor co-ordination and are immobile. If babies younger than two months felt anxiety in everyday situations, they might have displayed this in quite subtle, hard-to-observe ways.
L This made it difficult for mothers to make any judgements about them based on observations of their behaviour.
stages of attachment evaluation 3
P Schaffer and Emerson based their stage theory on a large-scale study with some good design features.
E However, they only looked at one sample which had unique features in terms of the cultural and historical context – 1960s working-class Glasgow.
E In other cultures, e.g., collectivist cultures, multiple attachments from a very young age are more the norm.
L It may not be appropriate to generalise the findings to all cultures.
stage of attachment evaluation 4
P A strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s stages is that they have practical application in day care (e.g. nurseries, where babies are cared for outside of the family home by a non-family adult).
E In the asocial and indiscrimination stages day care is likely to be straightforward as babies can be comforted by any skilled adult.
E But starting day care with an unfamiliar adult may be problematic during the specific attachment stage.
L Parents’ use of day care could be planned using this knowledge.
The role of the fathers
In attachment research the father is anyone who takes on the role of the main male caregiver. This can be but is not necessarily the biological father.
Most attachment research has focussed on the mother baby attachment and the role of the father has been neglected.
Attachment to fathers- Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
evidence suggests fathers are less likely to become first attachment figure
most babies become attached to mothers at 7 months, 3% of cases the father was first sole attachment figure
75% of infants studied had formed an attachment with the father at 18 months-showing that the father can be an important attachment figure
Distinctive roles for fathers
P research shows that the father may fulfil a different role from the mother, but this is just as crucial to the childs wellbeing.
E fathers role as playmate vs mothers role as emotional support.
E Geiger (1996) found that a fathers play interactions were more exciting compared to mothers. mothers play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
L the role of the father is different to the role of the mother.
attachment to father evaluation 2
P research shows that quality of adolescent attachments to a father is related to fathers play with infants.
E Grossman (2002) the quality if mother-child attachment was important when assessing the quality of attachment into adolescence- it was a better predictor of a childs future attachments and relationships. If a child had a good attachment with the mother, then they would form good attachments in the future
E Grossman found that this was not the case for father-child attachment i.e it was not a good predictor of future attachments.
L this suggests that the role of the father is less important.
attachment to father evaluation 3
P research shows that the father in a single parent family is more likely to adopt the traditional maternal role.
E Field (1978) 4 month old babies were filmed with primary caregiver mother, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers.
E primary caregiver fathers, like primary caregiver mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than secondary caregiver fathers.
L this research supports that fathers can be the primary attachment figure. Gender of the parent is less important than responsiveness.
further research about the role of the father 1
P research suggests that fathers can form secure attachments with their children, if they are in an intimate marriage.
E Belsky et al (2009) males with higher levels of marital intimacy had secure attachments with their children whereas males with lower levels if marital intimacy had insecure attachments.
L males can form secure attachments with their children, but the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship.
further research about the role of the father 2
P research shows that the role of the father may differ depending on the gender of the child
E freeman et al (2010) male children are more likely to prefer their father as an attachment figure than female children. Children are more likely to be attached to their father during late childhood and early adolescence.
E Manlove et al (2002) fathers are less likely to be involved with their baby if the baby has a difficult temperament.
L the gender of the child influences the role of the father.
further research about the role of the father 3
P research evidence suggests that fathers are not as equipped as mothers to provide sensitive and nurturing attachment.
E hardy (1999) fathers were less able to detect low levels of distress in infants.
E a lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not equipped innately to form close attachments with their children.
L the role of the father is biologically determined.
Lamb (1987) found that when children are happy, they prefer interacting with their fathers, but prefer mothers when they are distressed.
role of the father evaluation 1
P some research suggests the father has a different role to the mother.
E the question "what is the role of the father?" is complex.
E some research looks at the father as a primary attachment figure and others as a secondary attachment figure (having a different role to the mother).
L there is inconsistency in the research as to the role of the father and whether he plays a distinct role.
role of the father evaluation 2
P research investigating the effects of growing up in single or same-sex parent families shows there is no effect on development.
E Macallum and Golombok (2004) children growing up in single parent or same sex families do not develop differently.
L which suggests that the role of the father is not important.
role of the father evaluation 3
P advice can be offered to parents
E parents may worry about who should take the primary caregiver role.
E mothers may feel pressured to stay at home because of stereotypical views of roles- may not be the best decision economically.
L fathers can be the primary caregiver and this doesnt affect development.
economic implications of the role of the father
fathers remain at home and contribute less to the economy- more mothers may return to work and contribute to the economy instead
paternity leave is government funded so affects economy- 'father' not part of workforce whilst on leave.
gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are more equal- costs employers as they have to pay equal amounts.
early attachment research e.g. Bowlby suggests fathers should provide an economic rather than emotional function.