Labelling, identities and responses

• discourse 


  refers to the ways in which language, knowledge and power intersect to shape and construct social reality. they are essentially 'ways of seeing something'
• archer - dominant discourses in schools 2008

  • investigated how teachers see pupils for their stereotypical identities
  • wanted to understand the dominant discourses in schools
  • according to Archer teachers dominant discourse defines ethnic minority pupils identities as lacking the favoured identity of the ideal pupil
  • the dominant discourse constructs 3 different pupil identities; the ideal pupil identity, the pathologised pupil identity, and the demonised pupil identity
• the pathologised pupil identity 


  • an Asian 'deserving poor' feminised identity, either asexual or with an oppressed sexuality
  • the pupil is seen as plodding, conformist and culture bound 'overachiever' who succeeds through hard work rather than natural ability
• demonised pupil identity 


  • a black or white working class, hyper-sexualised identity
  • this pupil is seen as unintelligent, peer led, and a culturally deprived underachiever
• the A-C economy

  • found that due to the A-C economy teachers focus on and emphasise those students who they believe are most likely to achieve at least a grade C at GCSES
• racialised expectations 


  preconceived notions about the behaviour, abilities or characteristics of individuals or groups based on their ethnicity
• Gilborn + Youdell

  • found that teachers are quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviour
  • argue that this is a result of 'radicalised expectations'
  • they found that teachers expected black pupils to present more discipline problems and misinterpreted their behaviour as threatening or as a challenge to authority
  • when teachers acted on this misperception the pupils responded negatively and further conflict resulted
  • in turn black pupils felt teachers underestimated their ability and picked on them
  • conclude that much of the conflict between white teachers and black pupils from the racial stereotypes teachers hold rather than the pupils actual behaviour
  • believe that may explain the higher levels of exclusions from school of black boys
• Osler

  • black pupils more likely to suffer from unrecorded unofficial exclusions and from 'internal exclusions' where they are sent out of class
  • more likely to be placed in a pupil referral unit that exclude them from access to mainstream curriculum
• Wright

  • conducted a study in a multi-ethnic primary school
  • her study showed that Asian girls can also be the victims of teacher labelling
  • found that despite the schools apparent commitment to equal opportunities , teachers held ethnocentric views
  • this affected how they related to Asian pupils for example teachers assumed they would have a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussions
  • teachers spoke to asian pupils differently by using simplistic and childish language
  • Asian pupils also felt isolated when teachers expressed disapproval of their customs or mispronounced their names
  • teachers saw them not as a threat but as problem they could ignore
  • the effect was that Asian pupils especially girls were marginalised and prevented from participating fully
• Overview

  • according to Gillborn and Mirza 2000 in one local education authority black children were the highest achievers on entry to primary school yet by the time it came to GCSEs they had the worst results of any ethnic groups
  • instead of the underachievement being due to cultural deprivation or the children being unprepared, it is seen that factors internal to the education system is causing ethnic differences in educational achievement
• labelling and teacher racism

  • to attach a meaning or definition to them
  • e.g. teachers may label a pupil as a troublemaker or cooperative, bright or stupid
  • when looking at ethnic differences in achievement interactionists focus on the different labels teachers give to children from different ethnic backgrounds
  • their studies show that teachers often see black or Asian pupils as being far from the 'ideal pupil'
  • black pupils seen as disruptive and Asian pupils seen as passive
  • negative labels may lead to teachers to treat ethnic minority pupils differently
  • this disadvantages them and may result in their failure
• Bourne 1994

  • found schools tend to see black boys as a threat and to label them negatively leading eventually to exclusion
  • exclusions affect achievement; only 1 in 5 excluded pupils achieve 5 GCSEs
• black pupils and streaming

  • found that due to the A-C economy teachers focus on those students who they believe are most likely to achieve at least a grade C at GCSES
  • this process is called educational triage or sorting
  • as a result negative stereotypes about black pupils ability that some teachers hold means they are more likely to be placed in lower sets or streams
• Foster 1990 - black pupils and streaming

  • found that teachers stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved could result in them being placed in lower sets than other pupils of similar ability
  • streaming black pupils on the basis of negative stereotypes about their ability or behaviour can result in the self-fulfilling prophecy of underachievement
• the ideal pupil identity

  • a white middle class masculinised identity with a normal sexuality
  • this pupil is seen as achieving in the 'right; way through natural ability and initiative
• application of Archers identities

  • ethnic minorities were more likely to be seen as pathologised or demonised
  • argues that even those in minority pupils who perform successfully can be pathologised
  • for example Chinese students were simultaneously praised and viewed negatively by the teachers who saw them as too quiet and too repressed
  • in further research she found that teachers stereotyped Asian girls as quiet, passive or docile
  • Shain 2003 notes that when Asian girls challenge this stereotype by misbehaving they are often dealt with more severely than other pupils
• pupil responses and subcultures

  • research shows that pupils can respond to labelling and teacher racism in various ways
  • e.g. they may become disruptive or withdrawn
  • alternately pupils may refuse to accept the label and even decide to prove it wrong by working extra hard
  • negative labels do not automatically turn into self-fulfilling prophecies
• Fuller 1984

  • shows that they reject their labels and go against the self-fulfilling prophecy
  • found black girls instead of accepting the negative label, channelled and used their anger about low ability streams as educational motivation
  • unlike other successful pupils they did not seek the approval of teachers, many of whom they regarded as racist nor did they limit their choice of friends to other academic achievers
  • instead they were friends with black girls from lower streams
  • unlike other successful pupils they conformed only as far as the schoolwork itself was concerned
  • e.g. they worked conscientiously but gave the appearance of not doing so
  • fuller sees the girls behaviour as a way of ealing with contradictory demands of succeeding at school while remaining friends with black girls in lower streams and avoiding the ridicule of black boys
• what did fullers study highlight

  • this study highlights two important points that are pupils can still succeed even when refusing to conform and secondly negative labelling does nto always lead to failure
  • these girls were able to reject the labels placed on them and they remained determined to succeed -> no self-fulfilling prophecy
• Mac an Ghaills study

  • their study on black and Asian A-level students at sixth form also showed similar results
  • students who believed teachers had labelled them negatively did not necessarily accepted the label
  • how they responded depended on factors such as their ethnic group and gender and the nature of their former schools
  • e.g. girls who attended an all girls school before felt their experiences gave them a greater academic commitment that helped them overcome these negative labels
• Mirzas study

  • studied ambitious black girls who faced teacher racism
  • found that racist teachers discouraged black pupils from being ambitious through the kind of advice they gave them about careers and option choices e.g. teachers discouraged them from aspiring to professional careers
  • found that a large majority of teachers held racist attitudes and identifies 3 types of teacher racism
  • colour blind - believes all pupils are equal but allow racism to go unchallenged
  • the liberal chauvinists - believe black pupils are culturally deprived so have lower expectations of them
  • the overt racists - believe blacks are inferior and actively discriminate against them
• failed strategies for avoiding racism - Mirzas study

  • much of the girls time at school was spent trying to avoid the effects of teachers negative attitudes
  • the strategies they employed to do included being selective about which staff to ask for help, getting on with their own work in lessons without taking part or choosing certain options to avoid teachers with racist attitudes
  • however although the girls had high self-esteem these strategies put them at a disadvantage by restricting their opportunities
  • unlike in fuller study their strategies were unsuccessful
• Sewell - the variety of boys responses

  • notes that their responses to schooling including racist stereotyping by teachers can affect their achievement
  • he identifies 4 types of responses
  • Conformists
  • Innovators
  • Retreatists
  • Rebels
• the rebels

  • were the most visible and influential group but they were only a small minority of black boys
  • they were often excluded from school
  • rejected both the goals and the rules of the school and expressed their opposition through peer group membership, conforming to the stereotype of the anti-authority, anti-school 'black Mancho lad'
  • often dismissive of conformist black boys
• the retreatists

  • a tiny minority of isolated individuals who were disconnected from both school and black subcultures and were despised by the rebels
• the conformists

  • were the largest groups
  • these boys were keen to succeed, accepted school's goals, had friends from different ethnic groups
  • they were not part of a subculture and were anxious to avoid being stereotyped either by teachers or their peers
• the innovators

  • were the second largest group
  • were pro-education but anti-school
  • they valued success but did not seek teachers approval and conformed only as far as schoolwork itself was concerned
  • this distanced them from the conformists and allowed them to maintain credibility with the rebels while remaining positive about academic achievement
• Sewell - the variety of boys responses

  • notes that their responses to schooling including racist stereotyping by teachers can affect their achievement
  • he identifies 4 types of responses
  • Conformists
  • Innovators
  • Retreatists
  • Rebels
  • shows that only a small minority fit the stereotype of the 'black mancho lad'
  • nevertheless teachers tend to see all black boys in this way nd this contributes to the underachievement of many boys whatever their attitude to school
  • furthermore many of the boys negative attitudes are themselves a response to this racism
  • however while Sewell recognises that teacher racist stereotyping of black boys disadvantages them and can lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy he argues that factors external to the school e.g. role of peer groups and lack of father figure is more important in producing underachievement
• evaluation of labelling and pupil responses

  • rather than blaming the childs home background labelling theory shows how teacher stereotypes can be a cause of failure
  • however there is a danger of seeing these stereotypes as simply the product of individual teachers prejudices rather than a racism in the way that the education system as a whole operates
  • there is also a danger of assuming that once labelled pupils automatically fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy and fail
  • nevertheless as Mirza shows although pupils may devise strategies to try and avoid teachers racism these too can limit their opportunities of success