cloning and biotechnology

• Biotechnology is the industrial use of living organisms, or parts of living organisms, to produce food, drugs or other products
• Natural cloning includes plant natural cloning through vegetative propagation, which is a form of asexual reproduction where the offspring is genetically identical to the parent
• Examples of natural clones in animal species include the formation of twins by embryo splitting
• Artificial plant cloning methods include tissue culture and micropropagation
• Advantages of artificial plant cloning include the ease of producing a large number of plants independently of the season or weather
• Disadvantages of artificial plant cloning include the lack of genetic variation and the difficulty in responding to changes in conditions or pathogen attacks
• Methods of artificial cloning in animals include nuclear transfer and embryo splitting
• Advantages of artificial animal cloning include the quick cloning of beneficial animals and the preservation of endangered species
• Disadvantages of artificial animal cloning include the lack of genetic variation, uncertainty about the long-term health of cloned animals, and concerns about animal welfare
• Microorganisms are used in biotechnological processes due to their rapid growth, ability to grow on non-usable materials, and genetic engineering capabilities
• Microorganisms are used in various processes such as brewing, baking, cheese making, insulin production, and bioremediation
• Microorganisms can be grown in pure cultures or mixed cultures
• The growth curve of microorganisms in a closed culture includes lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, and decline phase
• In batch culture, fermentation is carried out in a closed fermenter, while continuous culture takes place in an open fermenter
• To maximize product yield, temperature, nutrient supply, aerobic conditions, and pH need to be controlled
• Enzyme immobilisation methods include adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment, and membrane separation
• Examples of immobilised enzymes in biotechnology include glucose isomerase, penicillin acyclase, lactase, aminoacyclase, glucoamylase, and nitrilase
• Advantages of using immobilised enzymes include the product not being contaminated, less susceptibility to temperature effects, and the removal of the need for filtering/purification