HMB202

• macrophages are the link between innate and adaptive immunity
• epitope is the region of antigens that react with antibodies
• epitope reacts with T cell receptors
• IgM: stops infection by toxins and viruses
• IgE: allergy
• IgG protects newborns (googoogaaga)
• IgD triggers B lymphocytes
• IgA: defense of mucosal surfaces
• peptides are loaded on MHC-I in the ER
• MHC- II proteins display lysed antigens
• helper T cells recognize MHC-II
• cytotoxic T cells recognize MHC-I
• epitopes that are conserved regions are targets for vaccination
• disease is the end state of a normal process
• MHC-I present proteins created inside the cell
• CD4 receptor on helper T cells recognize MHC molecules
• recognition of antigen on MHC class II leads to production of interleukin I in the antigen presenting cell
• interleukin I (from antigen presenting cell) leads

  • production of interleukin II and interleukin II receptors on helper T cell
  • T cell auto-stimulate and proliferate
• CD8 receptor on cytotoxic T cell recognizes antigen on MHC-I and produce interleukin II receptor and interferon gamma receptor
• activated helper T cells produce cytokines and stimulate cytotoxic T cells
• cytotoxic T cells proliferate after activation
• cytotoxic T cells release perforin and granzyme that lead to apoptosis
• clonal expansion: proliferation of cells with the same specificity
• T dependent antigen require helper T cells
• helper T cells secrete cytokines to make the B cell proliferate
• antibodies released from plasma cells circulate the bloodstream
• neoplasia: uncontrolled cell growth
• function of antibodies

  • agglutination
  • opsonization
  • neutralization
• capsulated layer: avoids immune system
• hyperplasia

  definition: increase in cell number

  normal or abnormal?: normal
• hypersensitivity

  • overreaction of immune system
  • secondary response: have to be exposed to the antigen before
• IgE binds to IgE receptors on mast cells and lead to mass production of histamines
• hypoxia: low oxygen
• necrosis: cell death, occurs when it is beyond the point of no-return
• the lung is semi-compartmentalized for diagnosis (medical) and for slowing the spread of infection down the linear pathway (biological)
• gram stain

  tests the ability to retain crystal violet (purple)
• color stain for gram stain

  gram positive: purple

  gram negative: red
• gram positive bacteria have a thick wall, so they don't take up the de-colorizing agent
• iodine is used in gram stain to make a larger structure and make it hard to wash out
• gram positive bacteria are mostly cocci