Criminology

• Criminal behavior is learned through a process of communication and interaction with others in intimate personal groups.
• Risk factors:

  • Increase the likelihood of a negative outcome
  • Canadian justice system uses a risk-based approach
  • Two types: Static (cannot be changed) and Dynamic (can change through maturity or intervention)
  • Risk factor domains: Individual, Familial, School, Peer, Community
  • Gender risk factors: High school samples show risk factors more prevalent among boys, while offender samples show risk factors more prevalent among girls
• Protective factors:

  • Decrease the likelihood of a negative outcome or increase the likelihood of a positive outcome
  • Poorly understood by the criminal justice system
  • Protective factors are not the opposite of risk factors
  • Can reduce negative outcomes by changing exposure to a risk factor, change the negative chain reaction following exposure to risk, and provide opportunities others in the same situation would not have
  • Domains: Individual, Community, Familial
• Definition of crime:

  • Intentional behavior in violation of the criminal code
  • Did not occur accidentally or without justification or excuse
  • Mala in se vs. mala prohibita
  • Behaviors that violate social/cultural norms
  • Antisocial behavior: Violations of social norms, usually applied only to adolescent behavior
• Measuring Crime:

  • Official reports: Highly reliable but may not be valid, only take the most serious offense
  • Dark figure of crime: Unreported or undiscovered crimes
  • Self-report studies: Participants report higher involvement in crimes than official reports, but may underreport serious crimes
  • Victimization surveys: Surveying victims of crimes to address the dark figure of crime and victimless crimes
• Consensus vs. Control theories: Consensus theories explain why individuals commit crimes, while control theories explain why individuals do not commit crimes
• Developmental risk factors:

  • Social risk factors: Poverty, peer rejection
  • Parental/family risk factors: Parenting style, parental psychopathology, antisocial siblings
  • Psychological risk factors: Cognitive risk factors (IQ, ADHD, CD, ODD), CU traits/psychopathy
  • ADHD: Includes inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity, treat with drugs that stimulate the brain
  • ODD: Negative, hostile, defiant behavior/attitudes, typically co-occurs with ADHD
  • CD: Childhood onset and adolescent onset, persistent misbehavior, all individuals with CD have ODD
• Biological Perspectives on crime:

  • Early biological perspectives: Phrenology, Cesare Lombroso
  • Sheldon's Somatotypes: Ectomorph, Endomorph, Mesomorph
  • Family studies, twin studies, adoption studies, molecular genetics
  • Key neurotransmitters: Serotonin, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Monoamine Oxides A (MAOA)
• Low activity MAOA can lead to excessive levels of dopamine when it interacts with a negative environment, such as childhood trauma
• The endocrine system regulates hormone production and distribution, including testosterone, which can lead to mood swings and aggression if imbalances occur
• Neuroimaging examines the structural and functional characteristics of the brain, with damage to the frontal lobe often found in offenders
• Epigenetics refers to the environmental impact on genes, affecting how genes are expressed, and can be implicated in antisocial behavior
• The autonomic nervous system includes the sympathetic NS, which prepares the body for fight or flight, and the parasympathetic NS, which reduces heart rate when fear subsides
• Temperament is considered the foundation of personality, affecting internal and external functioning, and can lead to an increased risk of antisocial behavior if negative
• Diet can impact brain functioning and hormone regulation, with studies showing that fish oil (omega-3) can reduce prison violence
• Control theories focus on why people do not commit crime, while consensus theories push individuals into criminal behavior
• Hirschi's Social Bond Theory includes attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief as factors that prevent individuals from engaging in criminal activities
• Sampson and Laub discuss historical context, age-graded risk factors, human agency, and structurally-induced turning points in relation to criminal behavior
• Learning theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning play a role in understanding criminal behavior and the consequences of labeling individuals as 'criminal'
• Three principles of sentencing include severity, celerity, and certainty, with the effectiveness of punishment being influenced by how swiftly it is applied
• Moffitt's dual taxonomy theory distinguishes between adolescent-limited and life-course-persistent offenders, highlighting different patterns of criminal behavior
• Family, twin, and adoption studies have strengths and limitations in understanding the interplay of genetics and environment in criminal behavior
• Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, while operant conditioning focuses on environmental consequences and reinforcement
• Lombroso studied physical attributes related to criminality, while Sheldon developed criminal somatotypes based on body types
• Developmental theories emphasize within-individual change, age-graded risk factors, and different parenting styles such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglecting
• Learning theories


  Humans are born neither good nor evil, focus on social learning
• Developmental theories: Focus on within-individual change and age-graded risk factors, past behavior relates to future behaviors
• Cognitive Developmental Theories: Children develop cognitive abilities over time, leading to changes in their perceptions and decision making.
• Social Learning Theory (SLT): Individuals learn through observation and imitation, influenced by role models and rewards/punishments
• Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behavior from observing others.
• Social Learning Theory: Individuals learn through observation and imitation, influenced by role models and the environment.
• Biological Factors: Genetics, hormones, brain chemistry, and neurological development can influence criminal behavior.
• Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory: People have the ability to observe others and model their behavior, with self-efficacy playing a key role in determining whether they will engage in criminal activity or not
• Environmental Factors: Socialization, peer pressure, family dynamics, poverty, education, media, and culture all play a role in shaping individuals' attitudes towards crime.
• Cohen & Felson's Routine Activity Theory: Crime occurs when three elements come together - motivated offender, suitable target, absence of capable guardian
• Aggression is learned through modeling and reinforcement, with the potential for desensitization and habituation.
• Role Models: People who serve as examples or guides for individuals, influencing their attitudes and behaviors.
• Theory of Moral Development: Kohlberg proposed three stages of moral development based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
• Rational Choice Theory: Offenders weigh costs and benefits of committing crime, considering potential risks and rewards
• Genetic Influences: Studies suggest heritability rates between 40% and 57%, indicating genetic influences on criminality.