CRIM103

• Empirical Evidence is acquiring data through means of observation or experimentation
• To determine if theories are valid, we must empirically test them
• Risk Factor is a variable that, if present, increases the likelihood of a negative outcome
• Protective Factor decreases the likelihood of a negative outcome or increases the likelihood of a positive outcome
• Types of Risk Factors:

  • Static: Cannot be changed (e.g., Hx of physical abuse; age of onset of offending)
  • Dynamic: Relatively stable but can change through maturity or intervention (e.g., substance use)
• Risk Factor Domains:

  • Individual: ADHD, ODD, CD, Psychopathy
  • Familial: Poor parenting practices
  • School: Negative school performance
  • Peer: Antisocial peers
  • Community: Poverty, neighbourhood disadvantage
• Gender Differences on Risk Factors:

  • High School Samples: Risk factors more prevalent among boys
  • Offender Samples: Risk factors more prevalent among girls
• Protective Factors Can:

  • Reduce negative outcomes by changing exposure to risk factor
  • Change the negative chain reaction following exposure to risk
  • Avail children to opportunities others in their situation would not have
• Protective Factor Domains:

  • Individual: intelligence, social skills, confidence
  • Familial: positive environment, supervision
  • Peer: prosocial peers
  • School: supportive teachers, availability of prosocial activities
  • Community: social cohesion, collective efficacy
• Philosophies on Defining Crime:

  • Crime is socially constructed
  • Consensus: agreement within society about what constitutes crime
  • Conflict: elite make crimes to hold power
  • Reality: Probably a bit of both (murder= consensus; drug use= conflict)
• Definition of Crime:

  • Intentional behaviour in violation of the criminal code
  • Mala in se vs. mala prohibita
• Definition of Antisocial Behaviour:

  • Violations of social norms
  • Usually applied only to adolescent (age 12-17) behaviour
• Measuring Crime:

  • Official Reports: Highly Reliable, Easy to record the number of arrests, charges, or convictions
  • Self-Report Studies: Virtually all self-report studies show that an individual’s number of self-reported crimes is higher than their official crimes
  • Victimization Surveys: Addresses the dark figure of crime, includes crimes that victims did not report to the police
• Consensus Theories explain why individuals do commit crime

  • Ex: Strain Theory
• Control Theories explain why individuals do not commit crime

  • Ex: Social Bond Theory
• Learning Theories:

  • Humans born neither good or evil
  • Ex: Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory
• Developmental Theories:

  • Provides a framework for studying other types of theories
  • Interested in within-individual change and age-graded risk factors
• Sociological Explanations:

  • MACRO level theories
  • Views crime as a large-scale social phenomenon
• Psychological Explanations:

  • MICRO- level theories
  • Individual focus on behavioural patterns and psychological factors
• Developmental Pathways and Trajectories:

  • Pathways: Stepping stones to more serious behaviour
  • Trajectory: Long term pattern of behavior
• Patterson’s Coercion Theory:

  • The earlier they offend, the longer the offending is likely to continue
  • 2 offending trajectories: early starters and late starters
• Moffit’s Dual Taxonomy:

  • Adolescent Limiteds: Little to no antisocial behavior in childhood, delinquency in adolescence, desist in adulthood
  • Life-course persistent: Antisocial behaviour shown early on, continue criminal behavior in adulthood
• Developmental Risk Factors:

  • Social Risk Factors: Poverty, Peer rejection
  • Family Risk Factors: Parenting, Siblings
  • Psychological Risk Factors: Cognitive Risk factors, CU traits/ Psychopathy
• Behavioural Disorders:

  • ADHD: Includes inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity
  • ODD: Negative hostile, and defiant behaviour/attitudes
  • CD (conduct disorder): Persistent misbehaviour
• Biological Perspectives on Crime:

  • Early theories influenced by political ideology, lacked comparison groups
  • Contemporary theories emphasize gene/environment interactions
• Behavioural Genetics:

  • Family, Twin, and Adoption Studies
• Family Studies:

  • Criminality is more common in some families
  • Criminality by the mother has stronger influence on future criminality than criminality by the father
• Twin Studies:

  • Approximately 50% of the variation in antisocial behaviour can be explained by genetics
  • Monozygotic twins have higher level of concordance than dizygotic twins
• Specific Twin Studies:

  • Twins’ Early Development study: high heritability of CU traits
  • Swedish Twin study: Genetic effect seems specific to early onset of antisocial behaviour
• Limitations of Twin Studies:

  • Can’t prove monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins grew up in the same environment
• Adverse childhood experiences could influence anti-social behavior
• The earlier individuals start their criminal career, the longer it tends to last
• Limitations of Twin Studies:

  • Low base rate of violent behavior in twin studies can lead to type II error (false negative)
  • Shared environment is more homogenous for MZ twins
• Adoption Studies:

  • Help deal with shared environment issues of twin studies
  • Tease apart genetic/environmental effects
  • Individuals adopted at birth and do not live with biological mother
  • To determine influence, study concordance between child and bio/adopted parent, and between child and their adopted/biological siblings
  • Problem of generalizability due to abnormal rates of ASB and advantageous environments of adopted children
• Molecular Genetics:

  • Twin and adoption studies do not identify specific genes at play; role of molecular genetics
  • Genes are not static/fixed; environment can alter genes
  • Diathesis Stress Model: genetic vulnerability to dysfunction, avoid environmental triggers to avoid dysfunction
  • Differential Susceptibility Model: gene-based differences in sensitivity to environment
• Key Transmitters:

  • Serotonin: behavioral inhibition, mood regulation; malfunctioning serotonin linked to aggression
  • Dopamine: feelings of pleasure; high & low levels linked to aggression
  • Norepinephrine: reaction to stress; high levels correlated with aggression
  • Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA): "warrior gene" breaking down neurotransmitters, low activity linked to aggression
• Hormones & Crime:

  • Testosterone produced by endocrine system, imbalances can lead to mood swings/aggression
  • Testosterone decreases with age and fluctuates throughout the day
• The Brain & Crime:

  • Neuroimaging examines brain structural and functional characteristics
  • Damage to frontal lobe and impairments to limbic system and temporal lobe implicated in antisocial behavior
• Epigenetics:

  • Environmental impact on genes; chemical markers can alter gene expression
  • Role of prenatal and perinatal complications, improper diet, and toxins implicated in antisocial behavior
• Autonomic Nervous System:

  • Sympathetic nervous system prepares for fight or flight
  • Under responsive ANS can lead to crime due to lack of fear inhibition