ENG02 - CO2

• Organization is the arrangement of ideas in a definite order
• Organization is achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.
• Coherence means that sentences are arranged in a logical manner, making then easily understood by the reader.
• Cohesion connection of ideas at sentence level.
• Arrangement of details according to

  • Chronological Order
  • Spatial Order
  • Process Order
• Chronological - details are arranged in the order in which they happened.
• Spatial - the sentences of a paragraph are arranged according to geographical location, such as left-to-right, up- to-down, etc
• Process - this type of order, a sequence of actions is described. It instructs the reader on how to do something. It is basically a set of directions
• Coherence refers to the overall sense of unity in a passage (both main point of sentences and main point of paragraph)
• Cohesion refers to the connection of ideas both at the sentence level and at the paragraph level
• Signal Devices

  1. Transitions
  2. Repetitions
  3. Synonyms
  4. Pronouns
• Signal devices - words that give readers an idea of how the points in your paragraph are progressing.
• Transitions are words that connect one idea to another, in order for our ideas to flow smoothly
• These are under transitions

  • time
  • sequence
  • space
  • illustration
  • comparison
  • contrast
  • cause and effect
  • conclusion
• Repetitions - repetitions of main ideas keep continuity and highlight important ideas
• Repetitions - could be a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text
• Synonyms - words that are similar in meaning to important words, or phrases that prevent tedious repetitions
• Pronouns - words that are used to replace nouns in a given sentence
• Words and phrases one must avoid to use in order to practice appropriate language use:

  1. Too informal
  2. Too unsophisticated
  3. Too vague
  4. Other tips
• Jargon - "insider" terminology that may be difficult for readers from other fields to understand
• Cliches - which are expressions that are heavily overused, such as 'think outside the box' and 'but at the end of the day'
• Other tips:

  1. Jargon
  2. Cliches
  3. Everyday abbreviations
  4. Slang
• Mechanics - refers to the set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize words. It errors on subject-verb agreement, prepositions, tenses, the grammar, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations and acronyms, the use of numbers as part of the statement, and the punctuation marks
• Defining Claims

  1. Explicit
  2. Implicit
• Types of Claims

  1. Claim of Fact
  2. Claim of Policy
  3. Claim of Value
• Whenever you read and you evaluate claims, seek definitions, judge information, demand proof, and question assumptions, you are thinking critically.
• Claim

  • persuades, argues, convinces, proves, or provocatively suggests something to a reader who may or may not initially agree with you.
  • academic claims are different -- often more complex, nuanced, specific, and detailed
• A claim is...

  • the main argument of an essay
  • defines your paper's goals, direction, scope, and exigence, and is supported by evidences
  • must be argumentative
  • specific
• Explicit claim - clearly written and explained in the text to the reader will not be confused
• Implicit claims - something that is implied, but not stated outright in the text.
• Claim of Fact

  • did it happen? does it exist? is it true?
  • states a quantifiable assertion, or a measurable topic
  • assert that something has existed, exists or will exist based on data
  • relies on credible sources or systematic procedures to be validated
• Claim of Value

  • is it good or bad? how bad? how good? is it moral or immoral?
  • based on personal taste or practices and morality
  • argues whether something is good or bad
  • a statement about which is better, more important, more desirable, more needed, or more useful.
• Claim of Policy

  • often describes a problem and then suggests ways to solve it
• Mixed Claims

  In an argument

  • one type of claim may predominate, but other types may also be present as supporting arguments or sub claims.
• Logical Fallacies - errors in reasoning that invalidate the argument
• Ad Hominem

  • unfairly attacking a person instead of the issue
  • attacking the character and/or reputation of position's supporters; "Guilt by association".
• Circular Reasoning

  • "begging he question"
  • the opinion to be proved is given as if it were already proved
• False Cause (Cause and Effect) "Non Causa Pro Causa"

  • citing false or remote cause to explain a situation
• Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc "After this, therefore because of this"

  • assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one
• "Either or" Fallacy

  • discussing an issue as if there are only two alternatives
  • this fallacy ignores any other possible alternatives